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| | + | A '''psychiatrist''' is a [[physician]] who specializes. in [[psychiatry]] and is certified in treating [[mental disorders]].<ref name=APAWhatIs>American Psychiatric Association. (Unknown last update). ''What is a Psychiatrist''. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.healthyminds.org/whatisapsychiatrist.cfm</ref> All psychiatrists are trained in diagnostic evaluation and in [[psychotherapy]]. As part of their evaluation of the patient, psychiatrists are one of the few [[mental health professional]]s who may prescribe [[psychiatric medication]], conduct physical examinations, order and interpret laboratory tests and [[Electroencephalography|electroencephalogram]]s, and may order brain imaging studies such as [[computed tomography]] or computed axial tomography (CT/CAT Scan), [[magnetic resonance imaging]] (MRI), and [[positron emission tomography]] scanning.<ref name=Meyendorf>Meyendorf, R. (1980). Diagnosis and differential diagnosis in psychiatry and the question of situation referred prognostic diagnosis. ''Schweizer Archiv Neurol Neurochir Psychiatry für Neurologie, Neurochirurgie et de psychiatrie, 126'', 121-134.</ref><ref name=Leigh15>Leigh, H. (1983). ''Psychiatry in the practice of medicine''. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-05456-9, p. 15</ref><ref name=Leigh67>Leigh, H. (1983). ''Psychiatry in the practice of medicine''. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-05456-9, p. 67</ref><ref name=Leigh17>Leigh, H. (1983). ''Psychiatry in the practice of medicine''. Menlo Park: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-05456-9, p. 17</ref><ref name=Lyness10>Lyness, J.M. (1997), p. 10</ref><ref name=Hampel>Hampel, H.; Teipel, S.J.; Kotter, H.U.; et al. (1997). Structural magnetic resonance imaging in diagnosis and research of Alzheimer's disease. ''Nervenarzt, 68'', 365-378.</ref><ref name=Townsend>Townsend, B.A.; Petrella, J.R.; Doraiswamy, P.M. (2002). The role of neuroimaging in geriatric psychiatry. ''Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 15'', 427-432.</ref> |
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| − | '''Carl Gustav Jung''' ({{IPA-de|ˈkaːɐ̯l ˈɡʊstaf ˈjʊŋ}}; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a [[Swiss (people)|Swiss]] [[psychiatrist]], an influential thinker, and the founder of [[analytical psychology]]. Jung is often considered the first modern psychologist to state that the human psyche is "by nature religious" and to explore it in depth.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Dunne|first=Clare |title=Carl Jung: Wounded Healer of the Soul: An Illustrated Biography|year=2002|pages=3|chapter=Prelude|url=http://books.google.com/?id=uegLZklR0fEC&pg=PA3 | isbn=9780826463074 | publisher=Continuum International Publishing Group}}</ref> Though not the first to analyze dreams, he has become perhaps one of the most well known pioneers in the field of [[dream analysis]]. Unlike Freud et. al. he was a self described natural scientist not a theoretical psychologist. For Jung this salient distinction revolved around his initial process of deep observation followed by categorizations rather than the reverse process of imagining what categories exist and then proceeding to seek for proof of and then discover that one was correct, always correct. While he was a fully involved and practicing clinician, much of his life's work was spent exploring tangential areas, including Eastern and Western philosophy, [[alchemy]], [[astrology]], [[sociology]], as well as [[literature]] and the arts; all of which were extremely productive in regard to the symbols and processes of the human psyche, found in dreams and other entrees to the unconscious.
| + | == Psychiatry in the professional world == |
| | + | Psychiatrists are [[physicians]] ([[Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery|MBBS]], [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]], [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|DO]], etc) who specialize in treating [[mental illness]]. |
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| − | He considered the process of [[individuation]] necessary for a person to become whole. This is a psychological process of integrating the opposites including the conscious with the unconscious while still maintaining their relative autonomy.<ref>[http://soultherapynow.com/articles/individuation.html Jung's Individuation process] Retrieved on 2009-2-20</ref> Individuation was the central concept of analytical psychology.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |page=209}}</ref>
| + | === Subspecialties === |
| | + | The field of psychiatry itself can be divided into various subspecialties.<ref name=UKReq /> These include: |
| | + | * [[Addiction psychiatry]] |
| | + | * Adult psychiatry |
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| − | Jungian ideas are routinely discussed in part by curriculum of introductory psychology course offerings with most major universities, and although rarely covered by higher-level course work, his ideas are discussed further in a broad range of humanities. Many pioneering psychological concepts were originally proposed by Jung, including the [[Archetype]], the [[Collective Unconscious]], the [[Complex (psychology)|Complex]], and [[synchronicity]]. A popular [[Personality psychology|psychometric instrument]], the [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] (MBTI), has been principally developed from Jung's theories.
| + | * [[Child and adolescent psychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Liaison psychiatry|Consultation-liaison psychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Cross-cultural psychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Emergency psychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Forensic psychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Learning disability]] |
| | + | * [[Neurodevelopmental disabilities]] |
| | + | * [[Neuropsychiatry]] |
| | + | * [[Psychosomatic medicine]] |
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| − | ==Early years==
| + | Some psychiatric practitioners specialize in helping certain age groups. Child and adolescent psychiatrists work with children and teenagers in addressing psychological problems.<ref name=UKReq /> Those who work with the elderly are called geriatric psychiatrists or geropsychiatrists.<ref name=UKReq /> Some work with babies or pets. Those who practice psychiatry in the workplace are called [[Industrial and organizational psychology|organizational and occupational psychiatrists]] in the US (occupational psychology is the name used for the most similar discipline in the UK).<ref name=UKReq /> Psychiatrists working in the courtroom and reporting to the judge and jury, in both criminal and civil court cases, are called [[forensic psychiatrist]]s, who also treat mentally disordered offenders and other patients whose condition is such that they have to be treated in secure units.<ref name=UKReq /><ref name=ABPNSubSpecial /> |
| − | Carl Jung was born Karle Gustav II Jung<ref>As a university student Jung changed the modernized spelling of his name to the original family form. {{Cite book|last=Bair |first=Deirdre |authorlink=Deirdre Bair |title=Jung: A Biography |year=2003 |publisher=Back Bay Books |location=New York |isbn=0-316-15938-7 |pages=7–8, 53}}</ref> in [[Kesswil]], in the [[Cantons of Switzerland|Swiss canton]] of [[Thurgau]], as the fourth but only surviving child of Paul Achilles Jung and Emilie Preiswerk. Emilie Preiswerk was the youngest child of Samuel Preiswerk, Paul Achilles Jung's professor of Hebrew. His father was a poor rural pastor in the [[Swiss Reformed Church]], while his mother came from a wealthy and established Swiss family.
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| − | When Jung was six months old his father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in [[Laufen-Uhwiesen|Laufen]]. Meanwhile, the tension between his parents was growing. An eccentric and depressed woman, Emilie Jung spent much of the time in her own separate bedroom, enthralled by the spirits that she said visited her at night.<ref name="Memories, Dreams, Reflections">{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |page=18}}</ref> Jung had a better relationship with his father because he thought him to be predictable and thought his mother to be very problematic. Although during the day he also saw her as predictable, at night he felt some frightening influences from her room. At night his mother became strange and mysterious. Jung claimed that one night he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room, with a head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body.<ref name="Memories, Dreams, Reflections"/>
| + | Other psychiatrists and mental health professionals in the field of psychiatry may also specialize in [[psychopharmacology]], [[psychiatric genetics]], [[neuroimaging]], [[sleep medicine]], [[pain medicine]], [[palliative medicine]], [[eating disorder]]s, [[sexual disorders]], [[women's health]], [[Global Mental Health]], [[early intervention in psychosis|early psychosis intervention]], [[mood disorders]] and [[anxiety disorders]] (including [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]] and [[post-traumatic stress disorder]]).<ref name=UKReq /><ref name=ABPNSubSpecial>American Board of Psychiatry and Neurology, Inc. (5 March 2007). ''ABPN Certification - Subspecialties''. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.abpn.com/cert_subspecialties.htm</ref> |
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| − | His mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near [[Basel]] for an unknown physical ailment. Young Carl Jung was taken by his father to live with Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but was later brought back to the pastor's residence. Emilie's continuing bouts of absence and often depressed mood influenced her son's attitude towards women — one of "innate unreliability," a view that he later called the "handicap I started off with"<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jung |first=C.G.|coauthors=[[Aniela Jaffé]] |title=[[Memories, Dreams, Reflections]] |year=1965 |publisher=Random House |location=New York |pages=8|isbn=0394702689}}</ref> and that resulted in his sometimes [[Patriarchy|patriarchal]] views of women.<ref name=Corbett /> After three years of living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer and was called to [[:de:Basel-Kleinhüningen|Kleinhüningen]] in 1879. The relocation brought Emilie Jung in closer contact to her family and lifted her melancholy and despondent mood.
| + | == Professional requirements == |
| | + | Typically the requirements to become a psychiatrist are substantial but differ from country to country.<ref name=UKReq>The Royal College of Psychiatrists. (2005). ''Careers info for School leavers''. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/training/careersinpsychiatry/careerbooklet.aspx</ref><ref name=USReq>Psychiatry.com (Unknown last update). ''Student Information''. Retrieved March 25, 2007, from http://www.psychiatry.com/student.php</ref> |
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| − | A solitary and introverted child, Jung was convinced from childhood that he had two personalities — a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more at home in the eighteenth century.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=33–34}}</ref> "Personality Number 1," as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in the era of the time, while "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative and influential man from the past. Although Jung was close to both parents he was rather disappointed in his father's academic approach to faith.
| + | ===US and Canada=== |
| | + | In the [[U.S.]] and [[Canada]] one must first complete their [[Bachelor's degree]], or in [[Quebec]] complete a premedical course of study in [[Cégep]].<ref name=USReq /> Students may choose any major, however they must enroll in specific courses, usually outlined in a [[Pre-medical|pre-medical program]].<ref name=USReq /> One must then apply to and attend 4 years of [[medical school]] in order to earn their [[Doctor of Medicine|M.D.]] or [[Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine|D.O.]] and to complete their [[Medical education in the United States|medical education]].<ref name=USReq /> Following this, the individual must practice as a [[Residency (medicine)|psychiatric resident]] for another four years (five years in Canada). This extended period allows comprehensive training that includes diagnosis, psychopharmacology, medical care issues, and psychotherapies. All accredited psychiatry residencies in the United States require proficiency in [[cbt (cognitive-behavioral)]], brief, psychodynamic, and supportive psychotherapies. Psychiatry residents are often required to complete at least four post-graduate months of internal medicine or pediatrics and two months of neurology during their first year.<ref name=USReq /> After completing their training, psychiatrists take written and then oral board examinations.<ref name=USReq /> The total amount of time required to complete post-baccalaureate work in the field of psychiatry in the United States is typically 8 years of training. |
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| − | A number of childhood memories had made a life-long impression on him. As a boy he carved a tiny [[mannequin]] into the end of the wooden ruler from his pupil's pencil case and placed it inside the case. He then added a stone which he had painted into upper and lower halves and hid the case in the attic. Periodically he would come back to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language.<ref name="art-therapy">{{Cite book|last=Malchiodi |first=Cathy A. |title=The Art Therapy Sourcebook |pages=134 |url=http://books.google.com/?id=Vno0XgRuRhcC&pg=PA134 | isbn=9780071468275 |year=2006 |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional}}</ref> This ceremonial act, he later reflected, brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. In later years he discovered that similarities existed in this memory and the [[totem]]s of native peoples like the collection of soul-stones near [[Arlesheim]], or the ''[[tjurunga]]s'' of Australia. This, he concluded, was an unconscious ritual that he did not question or understand at the time, but which was practiced in a strikingly similar way in faraway locations that he as a young boy had no way of consciously knowing about.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=22–23}}</ref> His findings on [[Jungian archetypes|psychological archetypes]] and the collective unconscious were inspired in part by these experiences.
| + | ===United Kingdom=== |
| | + | In the [[United Kingdom]], the [[Republic of Ireland]], and other parts of the world, one must complete a medical degree.<ref>[http://www.rcpsych.ac.uk/training/careersinpsychiatry/careerinfoforschoolleavers.aspx Careers info for School leavers<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> These degrees are often abbreviated [[Bachelor of Medicine and Surgery|MB BChir, MB BCh, MB ChB, BM BS, or MB BS]]. Following this, the individual will work as a [[Foundation House Officer]] for two additional years in the UK, or one year as [[Intern]] in the Republic of Ireland to achieve registration as a basic medical practitioner. Following this, training in psychiatry can begin and it is taken in two parts: Basic Specialist Training is the first three years and trainees take the MRCPsych exam (equivalent of ABPN board exams). The second stage of training is Higher Specialist Training, referred to as "ST4-6" in the UK and "Senior Registrar Training" in the Republic of Ireland. Candidates with MRCPsych degree and complete basic training must reinterview for higher specialist training. At this stage, the development of speciality interests such as forensic, child/adolescent take place. At the end of 3 years of higher specialist training, candidates are awarded a CCT (UK) or CCST (Ireland), both meaning Certificate of Completion of (Specialist) Training. At this stage, the psychiatrist can register as a specialist and the qualification of CC(S)T is recognised in all EU/EEA states. As such, training in the UK and Ireland is considerably longer than in the US or Canada and frequently takes around 8–9 years following graduation from medical school. Those with a CC(S)T will be able to apply for Consultant posts. Those with training from outside the EU/EEA should consult local medical boards to review their qualifications and eligibility for equivalence recognition (for example, those with a US residency and ABPN qualification). |
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| − | Shortly before the end of his first year at the [[:de:Gymnasium am Münsterplatz|Humanistisches Gymnasium]] in Basel, at the age of twelve, he was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard that he was for a moment unconscious (Jung later recognized that the incident was his fault, indirectly). A thought then came to him that "now you won't have to go to school any more."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=30}}</ref> From then on, whenever he started off to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained at home for the next six months until he overheard his father speaking worriedly to a visitor of his future ability to support himself, as they suspected he had [[epilepsy]]. With little money in the family, this brought the boy to reality and he realized the need for academic excellence. He immediately went into his father's study and began poring over [[Latin grammar]]. He fainted three times, but eventually he overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what a [[neurosis]] is."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Memories, Dreams, Reflections |pages=32}}</ref>
| + | ===Netherlands=== |
| | + | In the [[Netherlands]] one must complete medical school: a 6 year university programme after which one earns the title "doctorandus in de geneeskunde" or "master of medicine". After medical school, one is certified as a medical doctor. After a strict selection programme one can specialise in psychiatry: a 4,5 year specialisation. During this specialisation, the resident has to do a 6 month residency in the field of social psychiatry, a 12 month residency in a field of their own choice (which can be child psychiatry, forensic psychiatry, somatic medicine or medical research) and an obligatory three year residency in different areas of adult psychiatry (ranging from acute psychiatry on closed wards to outpatient psychiatry). If one wants to become a children's and adolescent psychiatrist, one has to do an extra specialisation period of 2 more years. In short this means that it takes at least 10,5 years of study to become a psychiatrist which can go up to 12,5 years if one becomes a children's and adolescent psychiatrist. |
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| − | Jung had no plans to study psychiatry, because it was held in contempt in those days. But as he started studying his psychiatric textbook, he became very excited when he read that [[psychoses]] are personality diseases. Immediately he understood this was the field that interested him the most. It combined both biological and spiritual facts and this was what he was searching for.<ref name="jungbio1">[http://soultherapynow.com/articles/carl-jung.html Carl Jung] Retrieved on 2009-3-7</ref>
| + | == See also == |
| | + | {{columns |
| | + | |width = 22em |
| | + | |col1 = |
| | + | *[[List of famous figures in psychiatry]] |
| | + | *[[List of psychiatrists]] |
| | + | *[[Medicine]] |
| | + | |col2 = |
| | + | *[[Mental health]] |
| | + | *[[Mental health professional]] |
| | + | *[[Mental illness]] |
| | + | |col3 = |
| | + | *[[Psychiatry]] |
| | + | *[[Psychiatric nursing]] |
| | + | *[[Clinical psychology]] |
| | + | *[[Psychologist]] |
| | + | *[[Psychology]] |
| | + | }} |
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| − | In 1895, Jung studied medicine at the [[University of Basel]]. In 1900, he worked in the [[Burghölzli]], a psychiatric hospital in [[Zurich]], with [[Eugen Bleuler]]. His dissertation, published in 1903, was titled "On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena." In 1906, he published ''Studies in Word Association'' and later sent a copy of this book to [[Sigmund Freud]], after which a close friendship between these two men followed for some six years (see section on [[#Relationship with Freud|Relationship with Freud]]). In 1912 Jung published ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido'' (known in English as ''[[Psychology of the Unconscious]]'') resulting in a theoretical divergence between him and Freud and consequently a break in their friendship, both stating that the other was unable to admit he could possibly be wrong. After this falling-out, Jung went through a pivotal and difficult psychological transformation, which was exacerbated by news of the [[First World War]]. [[Henri Ellenberger]] called Jung's experience a "creative illness" and compared it to Freud's period of what he called [[neurasthenia]] and [[hysteria]].
| + | == References == |
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| − | During World War I Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. (Swiss neutrality obliged the Swiss to intern personnel from either side of the conflict who crossed their frontier to evade capture.) Jung worked to improve the conditions for these soldiers stranded in neutral territory; he encouraged them to attend university courses.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crowley |first=Vivianne |title=Jung: A Journey of Transformation |year=1999 |publisher=Quest Books |pages=56|isbn=0835607828}}</ref>
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| − | == Later life ==
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| − | In 1903, Jung married [[Emma Jung|Emma Rauschenbach]], who came from a wealthy family in Switzerland. They had five children: Agathe, Gret, Franz, Marianne, and Helene. The marriage lasted until Emma's death in 1955, but he had more-or-less open relationships with other women. The most well-known women with whom Jung is believed to have had extramarital relationships were patient and friend [[Sabina Spielrein]]<ref>{{Cite book|last=Hayman |first=Ronald |title=A Life of Jung |year=1999 |publisher=W.W. Norton & Co. |location=New York |authorlink=Ronald Hayman |isbn=0393019675 |pages=84–5, 92, 98–9, 102–7, 121, 123, 111, 134–7, 138–9, 145, 147, 152, 176, 177, 184, 185, 186, 189, 194, 213–4}}</ref> and [[Toni Wolff]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=A Life of Jung |pages=184–8, 189, 244, 261, 262}}</ref>
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| − | Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including ''Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies'', which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of UFOs.<ref>The Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volumes 10 and 18</ref> He also enjoyed a friendship with an English [[Roman Catholic]] priest, Father [[Victor White (Dominican)|Victor White]], who corresponded with Jung after he had published his controversial ''[[Answer to Job]]''.<ref>In ''Psychology and Religion'', v.11, ''Collected Works of C.G. Jung'', Princeton. It was first published as "Antwort auf Hiob," Zurich, 1952 and translated into English in 1954, in London.</ref>
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| − | Jung's work on himself and his patients convinced him that life has a spiritual purpose beyond material goals. Our main task, he believed, is to discover and fulfill our deep innate potential, much as the acorn contains the potential to become the oak, or the caterpillar to become the butterfly. Based on his study of [[Christianity]], [[Hinduism]], [[Buddhism]], [[Gnosticism]], [[Taoism]], and other traditions, Jung perceived that this journey of transformation, which he called [[individuation]], is at the mystical heart of all religions. It is a journey to meet the self and at the same time to meet the Divine. Unlike Sigmund Freud, Jung thought spiritual experience was essential to our well-being.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Crowley |first=Vivianne |title=Jung: A Journey of Transformation:Exploring His Life and Experiencing His Ideas |year=2000 |publisher=Quest Books |location=Wheaton Illinois |isbn=978-0835607827 }}</ref>
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| − | In 1944 Jung published ''[[Psychology and Alchemy]],'' where he analyzed the alchemical symbols and showed a direct relationship to the psychoanalytical process. He argued that the alchemical process was the transformation of the impure soul (lead) to perfected soul (gold), and a metaphor for the individuation process.<ref name=" jungbio1" />
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| − | Jung died in 1961 at [[Küsnacht]], after a short illness.<ref>{{Cite book|last = Hayman |first = Ronald |title = A Life of Jung |publisher = W.W. Norton |location = New York |year = 2001 |isbn = 0393019675 |page = 450}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last = Bair |first = Deirdre |title = Jung |publisher = Little, Brown |location = Boston |year = 2003 |isbn = 0316076651 |pages = 622–3}}</ref>
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| − | == Relationship with Freud ==
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| − | {{psychoanalysis}}
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| − | Jung was thirty when he sent his ''Studies in Word Association'' to [[Sigmund Freud]] in Vienna in 1906. The two men met for the first time the following year, and Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable. They talked, he remembered, for thirteen hours, virtually without stopping'.<ref>Peter Gay, ''Freud: A life for Our Time'' (London 1988) p. 202</ref> Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in [[Zurich]], which marked the beginning of an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years and ended in May 1910. At this time Jung resigned as the chairman of the [[International Psychoanalytical Association]], where he had been elected with Freud's support.
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| − | Today Jung's and Freud's theories have diverged. Nevertheless, they influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. As Freud was already fifty years old at their meeting, he was well beyond the formative years. In 1906 [[psychology]] as a science was still in its early stages. Jung, who had become interested in psychiatry as a student by reading ''[[Psychopathia Sexualis]]'' by [[Richard von Krafft-Ebing]], professor in Vienna, now worked as a doctor under the psychiatrist [[Eugen Bleuler]] in Burghölzli and became familiar with Freud's idea of the [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] through Freud's ''[[The Interpretation of Dreams]]'' (1900) and was a proponent of the new "psycho-analysis." At the time, Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich at which Jung was a young doctor whose research had already given him international recognition.
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| − | In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded ''Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research.'' The following year, Jung traveled with Freud and [[Sándor Ferenczi]] to the U.S. to spread the news of psychoanalysis and in 1910, Jung became Chairman for Life of the International Psychoanalytical Association. While Jung worked on his ''Wandlungen und Symbole der Libido (Psychology of the Unconscious),'' tensions grew between Freud and Jung, mostly due to their disagreements over the nature of [[libido]] and religion{{Clarify|date=December 2009}}. In 1912 these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague [[Ludwig Binswanger]] in [[Kreuzlingen]] without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture." Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the United States and gave the ''Fordham lectures,'' which were published as ''The Theory of Psychoanalysis.'' While they contain some remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the nature of libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory Jung became famous for in the following decades.
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| − | [[Image:Hall Freud Jung in front of Clark 1909.jpg|thumb|left|Group photo 1909 in front of [[Clark University]]. Front row: [[Sigmund Freud]], [[G. Stanley Hall]], Jung; back row: [[Abraham A. Brill]], [[Ernest Jones]], [[Sándor Ferenczi]].]]
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| − | In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in [[Munich]] for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals.<ref name="jones">Jonest, Ernest, ed. [[Lionel Trilling]] and Steven Marcus. ''The Life and Work of Sigmund Freud'' New York: Anchor Books, 1963.</ref> At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on [[Amenhotep IV]], Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic movement]]. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted and Jung carried him to a couch.
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| − | Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 for the ''Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress,'' also in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the [[introvert]]ed and the [[extravert]]ed type, in [[analytical psychology]]. This constituted the introduction of some of the key concepts which came to distinguish Jung's work from Freud's in the next half century.
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| − | In the following years Jung experienced considerable isolation in his professional life, exacerbated through [[World War I]]. His ''[[Seven Sermons to the Dead]]'' (1917) reprinted in his autobiography ''Memories, Dreams, Reflections'' (see bibliography) can also be read as expression of the psychological conflicts which beset Jung around the age of forty after the break with Freud.
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| − | Jung's primary disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious.{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}} Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete and unnecessarily negative. According to Jung (though not according to Freud), Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires. Jung agreed with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "[[personal unconscious]]", but he also proposed the existence of a second, far deeper form of the unconscious underlying the personal one. This was the [[collective unconscious]], where the archetypes themselves resided, represented in mythology by a lake or other body of water, and in some cases a jug or other container. Freud had actually mentioned a collective level of psychic functioning but saw it primarily as an appendix to the rest of the psyche.
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| − | ==Travels==
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| − | Jung's first trip outside of Europe was the 1909 conference at [[Clark University]]. The event was planned by psychologist [[G. Stanley Hall]] and included twenty-seven distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Rosenzwieg |first=Saul |title=Freud, Jung and Hall the King-Maker |year=1992 |isbn=0-88937-110-5}}</ref> Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit, and again for a six-week lecture series at [[Fordham University]] in 1912. He made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with chieftain Mountain Lake at the [[Taos Pueblo|Taos Pueblo in New Mexico]].<ref name="McGuire">{{cite journal |last=McGuire |first=William |title= Firm Affinities: Jung's relations with Britain and the United States |journal=Journal of Analytical Psychology |year=1995 |volume=40 |pages=301–326}}</ref>
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| − | Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long. She translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings<ref>{{Cite book|last=Jung |first=C.G. |title=Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology |year=1916 |publisher=Bailliere, Tindall and Cox |others=Dr. Constance E. Long}}</ref> and arranged for him to give a seminar in [[Cornwall]] in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Helton Godwin Baynes (known as Peter), and another in 1925.<ref name="McGuire"/>
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| − | In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by Peter Baynes and an American associate, [[George Beckwith (Carl Jung associate)|George Beckwith]]. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of [[Mount Elgon]], where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned, had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Burleson |first=Blake W. |title=Jung in Africa |year=2005 |isbn=0-8264-6921-3}}</ref>
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| − | Jung made another trip to America in 1936, giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the [[Terry Lectures]], ''Psychology and Religion'', at [[Yale University]]. In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under the direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but in India he was able to converse extensively. Hindu philosophy became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious. Unfortunately, Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of [[delirium]] in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bair |first=Deirdre |title= Jung: A Biography |year=2003 |isbn=0-316-07665-1 |pages=417–430}}</ref>
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| − | == Political views ==
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| − | {{quotation|Giving laws, wanting improvements, making things easier, has all become wrong and evil. May each one seek out his own way, the way leads to mutual love in community. Men will come to see and feel the similarity and communality of their ways.|Carl Jung in ''The Red Book''<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 9780393065671 | title = The Red Book | page = 231 | publisher = W. W. Norton & Company | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2009 }}</ref>}}
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| − | Jung stressed the importance of [[Natural and legal rights|individual rights]] in a person's relation to the state and society. He saw that the state was treated as "a quasi-animate personality from whom everything is expected" but that this personality was "only camouflage for those individuals who know how to manipulate it",<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | pages = 15–16 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref> and referred to the state as a form of slavery.<ref>C.G. Jung, ''Die Beziehungen zwishen dem Ich und dem Unbewußten'', chapter one, second section, 1928. Also, C.G. Jung ''Aufsatze zur Zeitgeschichte'', 1946. Speeches made in 1933 and 1937 are excerpted.</ref><ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | page = 14 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref><ref name="Jung 2006 23–24">{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | pages = 23–24 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 030000171 | title = Psychology and Religion | page = 59 | publisher = The Vail-Ballou Press ic. | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 1960 }}</ref> He also thought that the state "swallowed up [people's] religious forces",<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | page = 23 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref> and therefore that the state had "taken the place of God"—making it comparable to a religion in which "state slavery is a form of worship".<ref name="Jung 2006 23–24"/> Jung observed that "stage acts of [the] state" are comparable to religious displays: "Brass bands, flags, banners, parades and monster demonstrations are no different in principle from ecclesiastical processions, cannonades and fire to scare off demons".<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | page = 25 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref> From Jung's perspective, this replacement of God with the state in a mass society led to the dislocation of the religious drive and resulted in the same [[fanaticism]] of the church-states of the Dark Ages—wherein the more the state is 'worshiped', the more freedom and morality are suppressed;<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | page = 24 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref> this ultimately leaves the individual psychically undeveloped with extreme feelings of marginalization.<ref>{{Cite book| isbn = 0451218604 | title = The Undiscovered Self: The Problem of the Individual in Modern Society | page = 14 & 45 | publisher = New American Library | last = Jung | first = Carl | year = 2006 }}</ref>
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| − | == Works ==
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| − | {{Main|Carl Jung publications}}
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| − | Jung was a prolific writer. His collected works fill 19 volumes. Many of his works were not translated into English until after his death. His best known works are ''[[Psychology of the Unconscious]]'' (1912) and ''[[Psychological Types]]'' (1921){{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}.
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| − | === Red Book ===
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| − | {{Main|Red Book (Jung)}}
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| − | In 1913 at the age of thirty-eight, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia." He decided that it was valuable experience, and in private, he induced hallucinations, or, in his words, "active imaginations." He recorded everything he felt in small journals. Jung began to transcribe his notes into a large, red leather-bound book, on which he worked intermittently for sixteen years.<ref name=Corbett>{{cite news|author=Corbett, Sara|title=The Holy Grail of the Unconscious|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/20/magazine/20jung-t.html|date=September 16, 2009|publisher=The New York Times|accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref>
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| − | Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the "[[Red Book (Jung)|Red Book]]". His family eventually moved it into a bank vault in 1984. [[Sonu Shamdasani]], a historian from London, for three years tried to persuade Jung's heirs to have it published, to which they declined every hint of inquiry. As of mid-September 2009, fewer than two dozen people had seen it. But Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it. To raise the additional funds needed, the [[Philemon Foundation]] was founded.<ref name=Corbett />
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| − | In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with the publisher, [[W. W. Norton & Company]], painstakingly scanned one-tenth of a millimeter at a time with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on October 7, 2009 (ISBN 978-0-393-06567-1) in German with "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book, according to Sara Corbett for ''[[The New York Times]]''. She wrote, "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an antediluvian and mystical reality."<ref name=Corbett />
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| − | The [[Rubin Museum of Art]] in New York City displayed the original Red Book journal, as well as some of Jung's original small journals, from October 7, 2009 to January 25, 2010.<ref name=Rubin>{{Cite web|url=http://www.rmanyc.org/nav/exhibitions/view/308|title=
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| − | The Red Book of C.G. Jung|publisher=Rubin Museum of Art|accessdate=2009-09-20}}</ref> According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's [[illuminated manuscript|illuminations]] of the text.<ref name=Rubin />
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| − | == Response to Nazism ==
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| − | Jung had many friends and respected colleagues who were Jewish and he maintained relations with them through the 1930s when [[anti-semitism]] in Germany and other European nations was on the rise. However, until 1939, he also maintained professional relations with psychotherapists in Germany who had declared their support for the [[Nazism|Nazi]] régime and there were allegations that he himself was a Nazi sympathizer. In his work ''Civilisation in Transition, Collected Works Volume X'', however, Jung wrote of “... the [[Aryan]] bird of prey with his insatiable lust to lord it in every land, even those that concern him not at all."<ref>Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 89</ref>
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| − | There are writings showing that Jung's sympathies were against, rather than for, Nazism.<ref>C.G. Jung,‘ Die Beziehungen zwishen dem Ich und dem Unbewußten’, chapter one, second section, 1928. Also, C.G. Jung‘ Aufsatze zur Zeitgeschichte’, 1946. Speeches made in 1933, 1937 are excerpted. He was protesting the "slavery by the government" and the "chaos and insanity" of the mob, because of the very fact that they were the part of the mob and were under its strong influence. He wrote that because of the speeches he delivered he was blacklisted by Nazis. They eliminated his writings.</ref> In his 1936 essay ''Wotan'', Jung described Germany as "infected" by "one man who is obviously 'possessed'...", and as "rolling towards perdition",<ref>Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 185.</ref> and wrote "...what a so-called [[Führer]] does with a mass movement can plainly be seen if we turn our eyes to the north or south of our country."<ref>Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 190.</ref> The essay does, however, speak in more positive terms of [[Jakob Wilhelm Hauer]] and his [[German Faith Movement]]<ref>Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 190-191.</ref> which was loyal to [[Hitler]]. In April 1939, the [[Bishop of Southwark (Anglican)|Bishop of Southwark]] asked Jung if he had any specific views on what was likely to be the next step in religious development. Jung's reply was:
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| − | {{quote|We do not know whether Hitler is going to found a new [[Islam]]. He is already on the way; he is like [[Mohammed]]. The emotion in Germany is Islamic; warlike and Islamic. They are all drunk with wild god. That can be the historic future.<ref>The Collected Works Volume 18, The Symbolic Life, Princeton University Press p. 281</ref>}}
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| − | He would later describe the Führer thus: "Hitler seemed like the 'double' of a real person, as if Hitler the man might be hiding inside like an appendix, and deliberately so concealed in order not to disturb the mechanism ... You know you could never talk to this man; because there is nobody there ... It is not an individual; it is an entire nation."<ref>C.G. Jung Speaking: Interviews and Encounters, edited by William McGuire and R.F.C. Hull (London: Thames and Hudson, 1978), pp. 91–93, 115–135, 136–40.</ref> In 1943, Jung aided the United States [[Office of Strategic Services]] by analyzing the psychology of Nazi leaders.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}}
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| − | In an interview with Carol Baumann in 1948, Jung denied rumors regarding any sympathy for the Nazi movement, saying:
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| − | {{quote|It must be clear to anyone who has read any of my books that I have never been a Nazi sympathizer and I never have been anti-Semitic, and no amount of misquotation, mistranslation, or rearrangement of what I have written can alter the record of my true point of view. Nearly every one of these passages has been tampered with, either by malice or by ignorance. Furthermore, my friendly relations with a large group of Jewish colleagues and patients over a period of many years in itself disproves the charge of anti-Semitism.<ref>Interview with Carol Baumann, published in the ''Bulletin of Analytical Psychology Club of New York'', December 1949</ref>}}
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| − | A full response from Jung discounting the rumors can be found in ''C.G Jung Speaking, Interviews and Encounters'', Princeton University Press, 1977.
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| − | === Jung and professional organizations in Germany, 1933 to 1939 ===
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| − | In 1933, after the Nazis gained power in Germany, Jung took part in restructuring of the [[International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy|General Medical Society for Psychotherapy]] (''Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie''), a German-based professional body with an international membership. The society was reorganized into two distinct bodies:
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| − | # A strictly German body, the ''Deutsche Allgemeine Ärztliche Gesellschaft für Psychotherapie'', led by [[Matthias Heinrich Göring]], an [[Alfred Adler|Adlerian]] psychotherapist<ref>[http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A00E3DC123BF934A15752C0A963948260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1 Lifton, Robert Jay (27 January 1985) "Psychotherapy in the Third Reich" New York Times]</ref> and a cousin of the prominent Nazi [[Hermann Göring]];
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| − | # International General Medical Society for Psychotherapy, led by Jung. The German body was to be affiliated to the international society, as were new national societies being set up in Switzerland and elsewhere.<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.G.Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. ISBN 0-340-12515-2; pages 79 – 80.</ref>
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| − | [[File:C. G. Jung institute.jpg|left|thumb|C. G. Jung Institute, [[Küsnacht]], Switzerland]]
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| − | The International Society's constitution permitted individual doctors to join it directly, rather than through one of the national affiliated societies, a provision to which Jung drew attention in a circular in 1934.<ref>An English translation of the circular is in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 545–546.</ref> This implied that German Jewish doctors could maintain their professional status as individual members of the international body, even though they were excluded from the German affiliate, as well as from other German medical societies operating under the Nazis.<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.G.Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. ISBN 0-340-12515-2; page 82.</ref>
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| − | As leader of the international body, Jung assumed overall responsibility for its publication, the ''Zentralblatt für Psychotherapie''. In 1933, this journal published a statement endorsing Nazi positions<ref>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.G.Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. ISBN 0-340-12515-2; page 80.</ref> and Hitler's book ''Mein Kampf''.<ref>Mark Medweth.« [http://web.archive.org/web/20050331084847/http://www.sfu.ca/~wwwpsyb/issues/1996/winter/medweth.htm Jung and the Nazis] », in ''Psybernetika'', Winter 1996.</ref> In 1934, Jung wrote in a Swiss publication, the ''[[Neue Zürcher Zeitung]]'', that he experienced "great surprise and disappointment"<ref>Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 538.</ref> when the ''Zentralblatt'' associated his name with the pro-Nazi statement.
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| − | Jung went on to say "the main point is to get a young and insecure science into a place of safety during an earthquake".<ref>Article republished in English in Jung, Carl G. (1970); Collected Works, Volume 10; Routledge and Kegan Paul, London; ISBN 0-7100-1640-9; p 538. See also Stevens, Anthony, "Jung: a very short introduction", Oxford ; New York : Oxford University Press, 2001. ISBN 0-19-285458-5</ref> He did not end his relationship with the ''Zentralblatt'' at this time, but he did arrange the appointment of a new managing editor, [[Carl Alfred Meier]] of Switzerland. For the next few years, the ''Zentralblatt'' under Jung and Meier maintained a position distinct from that of the Nazis, in that it continued to acknowledge contributions of Jewish doctors to psychotherapy.<ref name=Jaffe_p83>Jaffé, Aniela (1972); ''From the Life and Work of C.G.Jung''; Hodder and Stoughton, London. ISBN 0-340-12515-2; page 83.</ref>
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| − | In the face of energetic German attempts to Nazify the international body, Jung resigned from its presidency in 1939,<ref name=Jaffe_p83/> the year the [[Second World War]] started.
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| − | ==Influence==
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| − | Jung has had an enduring influence on psychology as well as wider society. He founded a new school of [[psychotherapy]], called [[analytical psychology]] or Jungian psychology. His theories include:
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| − | * The concept of [[Extraversion and introversion#Introversion|introversion]] and [[Extraversion and introversion#Extraversion|extraversion]].
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| − | * The concept of the [[complex (psychology)|complex]].
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| − | * The concept of [[collective unconscious]], which is shared by all people. It includes the [[Jungian archetypes|archetypes]].
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| − | * [[Synchronicity]] as a mode of relationship that is not [[causality |causal]], an idea which has influenced [[Wolfgang Pauli]] (with whom he developed the notion of [[Unus mundus]] in connection with the notion of [[non-locality]]) and some other [[Quantum physics|physicists]].<ref>Jung, C.G. and [[Wolfgang Pauli]], ''The Interpretation of Nature and Psyche'', New York: Pantheon Books, 1955</ref>
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| − | * The [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]] (MBTI) and [[Socionics]] were both inspired by Jung's psychological types theory.
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| − | ===Spirituality as a cure for alcoholism===
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| − | Jung recommended spirituality as a cure for alcoholism and he is considered to have had an indirect role in establishing [[Alcoholics Anonymous]].<ref>{{Cite book|last=Levin|first=Jerome David |title=Introduction to Alcoholism Counseling|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=1995|pages=167|chapter=Other etiological theories of Alcoholism|url=http://books.google.com/?id=_y7H9Sq5g6kC&pg=PA167 | isbn=9781560323587}}</ref> Jung once treated an American patient ([[Rowland Hazard III]]), suffering from chronic [[alcoholism]]. After working with the patient for some time and achieving no significant progress, Jung told the man that his alcoholic condition was near to hopeless, save only the possibility of a spiritual experience. Jung noted that occasionally such experiences had been known to reform alcoholics where all else had failed.
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| − | Rowland took Jung's advice seriously and set about seeking a personal spiritual experience. He returned home to the United States and joined a First-Century [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Evangelicalism|evangelical]] movement known as the [[Oxford Group]] (later known as Moral Re-Armament). He also told other alcoholics what Jung had told him about the importance of a spiritual experience. One of the alcoholics he brought into the Oxford Group was [[Ebby Thacher]], a long-time friend and drinking buddy of [[William Griffith Wilson|Bill Wilson]], later co-founder of [[Alcoholics Anonymous]] (AA). Thacher told Wilson about the Oxford Group, and through them Wilson became aware of Hazard's experience with Jung. The influence of Jung thus indirectly found its way into the formation of Alcoholics Anonymous, the original [[twelve-step program]], and from there into the whole twelve-step recovery movement, although AA as a whole is not Jungian and Jung had no role in the formation of that approach or the twelve steps.
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| − | The above claims are documented in the letters of Jung and Bill W., excerpts of which can be found in ''Pass It On'', published by Alcoholics Anonymous.<ref>Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. (1984) ''Pass It On: The Story of Bill Wilson and how the A.A. message reached the world.'' New York: Alcoholics Anonymous World Services, Inc. ISBN 0-916856-12-7, pp. 381–386</ref> Although the detail of this story is disputed by some historians, Jung himself discussed an Oxford Group member, who may have been the same person, in talks given around 1940. The remarks were distributed privately in transcript form, from shorthand taken by an attender (Jung reportedly approved the transcript), and later recorded in Volume 18 of his Collected Works, ''The Symbolic Life'' ("For instance, when a member of the Oxford Group comes to me in order to get treatment, I say, 'You are in the Oxford Group; so long as you are there, you settle your affair with the Oxford Group. I can't do it better than Jesus.'" Jung goes on to state that he has seen similar cures among [[Roman Catholics]]).<ref>Jung, C. G.; Adler, G. and Hull, R. F. C., eds. (1977) ''Collected Works of C. G. Jung, Volume 18: The Symbolic Life: Miscellaneous Writings,'' Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-09892-0, p. 272, as noted 2007-08-26 at http://www.stellarfire.org/additional.html</ref>
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| − | ===Art therapy===
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| − | Jung proposed that Art can be used to alleviate or contain feelings of trauma, fear, or anxiety and also to repair, restore and heal.<ref name="art-therapy"/> In his work with patients and in his own personal explorations, Jung wrote that art expression and images found in dreams could be helpful in recovering from trauma and emotional distress. Jung often drew, painted, or made objects and constructions at times of emotional distress, which he recognized as recreational.<ref name="art-therapy"/>
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| − | A strand of Dance Movement Therapy named Authentic Movement by its creator, Mary Starks Whitehouse, was developed after several years of undergoing Jungian analysis, through applying -and slightly adapting- Jung's techniques of Active Imagination to movement.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}}
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| − | ==Influences on culture==
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| − | <!-- Note: please consider an entry's contribution to this article before adding it. Loosely-related similarities should not be added, nor should speculative connections. For cultural references to Jung's theories, consider adding them to the relevant article. -->
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| − | ===Literature===
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| − | * [[Laurens van der Post]] claimed to have had a 16-year-long friendship with Jung, from which a number of books and a film were created about Jung's life.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.ratical.org/many_worlds/LvdP/|title=Laurens van der Post|accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref> The accuracy of van der Post's claims about the closeness of his relationship to Jung have been questioned.<ref name=jones>{{Cite book| last=Jones|first=J.D.F.|title=Storyteller: The Many Lives of Laurens van der Post|year=2001|isbn=0-7867-1031-4}}</ref>
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| − | * [[Hermann Hesse]], author of works such as ''[[Siddhartha (novel)|Siddhartha]]'' and ''[[Der Steppenwolf]]'', was treated by Dr. Joseph Lang, a student of Jung. This began for Hesse a long preoccupation with [[psychoanalysis]], through which he came to know Jung personally.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.kirjasto.sci.fi/hhesse.htm|title=Hermann Hesse|accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>
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| − | * Joyce's ''[[A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man]]'' can be read as an ironic parody of Jung's "four stages of eroticism".<ref>Hiromi Yoshida, ''Joyce & Jung: The "Four Stages of Eroticism" in A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man'' (New York: Peter Lang, 2007).</ref>
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| − | * Jung appears as a character in the novel ''[[Possessing the Secret of Joy]]'' by [[Alice Walker]]. He appears as the therapist of Tashi, the novel's [[protagonist]]. He is usually called "Mzee" but is identified by Alice Walker in the afterword.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.biblio.com/details.php?dcx=53037639&aid=frg|title=Possessing the Secret of Joy|accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>
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| − | ===Art===
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| − | [[File:CarlJungStatueLiverpool.jpg|thumb|Original statute of Jung in [[Mathew Street]], [[Liverpool]], a half-body on a plinth captioned "Liverpool is the pool of life"]]
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| − | * The [[visionary art|visionary]] Swiss [[Painting|painter]] [[Peter Birkhäuser]] was treated by a student of Jung, [[Marie-Louise von Franz]], and corresponded with Jung regarding the translation of dream symbolism into works of art.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Birkhäuser |first=Peter |coauthors=Marie-Louise von Franz, Eva Wertanschlag and Kaspar Birkhäuser |title= Light from the Darkness: The Paintings of Peter Birkhäuser |year=1980–1991 |publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag |location=Boston, MA |isbn=3764311908}}</ref>
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| − | * American [[Abstract Expressionism|Abstract Expressionist]] [[Jackson Pollock]] underwent Jungian psychotherapy in 1939 with Dr. Joseph Henderson. His therapist made the decision to engage him through his art, and had Pollock make drawings, which led to the appearance of many Jungian concepts in his paintings.<ref>[http://serdar-hizli-art.com/abstract_art/jackson_pollock_psychoanalytic_drawings.htm ''Abstract Expressionism, Jackson Pollock's "Psychoanalytic Drawings" Paintings"''] Retrieved July 24, 2010</ref><ref>{{Cite book|last=Stockstad |first=Marilyn |title= Art History |year= 2005 |publisher=Pearson Education, Inc. |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=0131455273}}</ref>
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| − | * Contrary to some sources,<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/culture/2003/jun/05/artsfeatures.europeancapitalofculture2008 |title=History broke Liverpool, and it broke my heart |work= The Guardian |accessdate=2010-02-24 | location=London | first=Linda | last=Grant | date=2003-06-05}}</ref> Jung did not visit [[Liverpool]] but recorded a dream in which he had, and of which he wrote "Liverpool is the pool of life, it makes to live."<ref name = Liverpool>{{Cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=05hJrW5yuakC&pg=PA111&lpg=PA111&dq=statue+Jung+liverpool&q=statue%20Jung%20liverpool |title=Public sculpture of Liverpool |publisher=books.google.co.uk |accessdate=2010-02-24 | first1=Terry | last1=Cavanagh | isbn=9780853237112 |year=1997}}</ref> As a result a statue of Jung was erected in [[Mathew Street]] in 1987 but, being made of [[plaster]], was vandalised and replaced by a more durable version in 1993.<ref name = Liverpool/>
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| − | ===Television and film===
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| − | * [[Federico Fellini]] brought to the screen an exuberant imagery shaped by his encounter with the ideas of Carl Jung, especially Jungian dream interpretation. Fellini preferred Jung to [[Freud]] because Jungian analysis defined the dream not as a symptom of a disease that required a cure but rather as a link to archetypal images shared by all of humanity.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Bondanella|first= Peter E. |title=The Films of Federico Fellini|page=94|isbn=0521575737}}</ref>
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| − | * In 1984, an edition of the BBC documentary ''[[Sea of Faith: Television series|Sea of Faith]]'' was about Jung.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}
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| − | ===Music===
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| − | * Jung appears on the cover of The [[Beatles]]' album ''[[Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band]]'' on the top row, between [[W.C. Fields]] and [[Edgar Allan Poe]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}
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| − | * [[Peter Gabriel]]'s song ''"Rhythm of the Heat"'' (''[[Peter Gabriel (1982 album)|Security]]'', 1982), tells about Jung's visit to Africa, during which he joined a group of tribal drummers and dancers and became overwhelmed by the fear of losing control of himself. At the time Jung was exploring the concept of the [[collective unconscious]] and was afraid he would come under control of the music. Gabriel learned about Jung's journey to Africa from the essay ''Symbols and the Interpretation of Dreams'' (ISBN 0-691-09968-5). In the song Gabriel tries to capture the powerful feelings the African tribal music evoked in Jung by means of intense use of tribal drumbeats. The original song title was ''Jung in Africa''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.songfacts.com/detail.php?id=756 |title="Rhythm Of The Heat by Peter Gabriel", Song Facts|accessdate=2006-12-16}}</ref>
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| − | * On the cover of [[The Police]]'s final album, ''[[Synchronicity (album)|Synchronicity]]'', which was named after Carl Jung's theory,{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Sting is seen reading a book called ''Synchronicity'' by Carl Jung.<ref>Police, The. [http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/7/7f/Police-album-synchronicity.jpg Synchronicity (album artwork).]</ref>
| + | |
| − | * In [[MGMT]]'s single ''[[Metanoia (song)]]'', Jung is pictured on the front cover dressed as a referee. {{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}
| + | |
| − | * [[Aaron Turner]], singer and principal writer for the band [[ISIS]] is known to have based the theme of their final album [[Wavering Radiant]] on Jung's theory of Individuation.
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| − | | + | |
| − | ===Video Games===
| + | |
| − | * Jung's themes appear in the Playstation 2 series Xenosaga, as well as some of his theories as names. The characters Rubedo, Nigredo, and Albedo are a reference to his work, as well as the Anima/Animus.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==See also==
| + | |
| − | {{Portal|Psychology}}
| + | |
| − | {{Col-begin}}{{Col-2}}
| + | |
| − | ;Topics
| + | |
| − | * [[Active imagination]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Analytical psychology]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Anima and animus]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Archetypal literary criticism]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Archetypal pedagogy]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Archetypal psychology]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Bollingen Tower]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Collective unconscious]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Dream interpretation]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Jungian archetypes]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Jungian interpretation of religion]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Jungian Type Index]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Jung Type Indicator]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Keirsey Temperament Sorter]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Logos]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Logotherapy]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Myers-Briggs Type Indicator]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Neo-Freudian]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Personality test]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Psychodynamics]]
| + | |
| − | {{Col-break}}
| + | |
| − | ;People
| + | |
| − | * [[Alfred Adler]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Jean Shinoda Bolen]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Martin Buber]] – see the Buber-Jung disputations
| + | |
| − | * [[Joseph Campbell]] – popularizer of Jungian ideas
| + | |
| − | * [[Clarissa Pinkola Estés]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Erich Neumann]] – developer of matriarchal mythological adaptations of Jungian thought
| + | |
| − | * [[Joel Ryce-Menuhin]] - proponent of sandplay therapy
| + | |
| − | * [[Herbert Silberer]]
| + | |
| − | * [[D. T. Suzuki]] – see [[An Introduction to Zen Buddhism]], for which C.G. Jung wrote a preface
| + | |
| − | * [[Marie Louise von Franz]] – Founder of the C. G. Jung Institute in Zurich
| + | |
| − | * [[Richard Wilhelm]] – Translator of the [[I Ching]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Bill W.]] (Bill Wilson) founder of Alcoholics Anonymous
| + | |
| − | ;Organizations
| + | |
| − | * [[International Association of Analytical Psychologists]]
| + | |
| − | * [[International Association for Jungian Studies]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Philemon Foundation]]
| + | |
| − | * [[OPUS Archives and Research Center]]
| + | |
| − | {{Col-end }}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==References== | + | |
| | | | |
| | <references/> | | <references/> |
| | | | |
| | + | == Further reading == |
| | + | * American Psychiatric Association. (2000). ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders DSM-IV-TR Fourth Edition''. Washington, D.C.: American Psychiatric Publishing. |
| | + | * Frances, A., & First, M. (1999). ''Your Mental Health: A Layman's Guide to the Psychiatrist's Bible''. New York: Scribner. |
| | + | * {{Cite journal | author = Hafner, H. | year = 2002 | title = Psychiatry as a profession | url = | journal = Nervenarzt | volume = 73 | issue = 1| page = 33 |pmid = 11975061}} |
| | + | * Stout, E. (1993). ''From the Other Side of the Couch: Candid Conversations with Psychiatrists and Psychologists''. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press. |
| | | | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| + | {{Psychiatry}} |
| − | {{Sister project links|author=yes|s=Carl Gustav Jung|n=no|v=no}} | + | |
| − | *{{Cite book|last=Jung|first=Carl Gustav |coauthors=Marie-Luise von Franz|title=[[Man and His Symbols]]|publisher=Doubleday|year=1964|isbn=8449301610}}
| + | |
| − | *Carl Gustav Jung, ''Analytical Psychology: Its Theory and Practice (The Tavistock Lectures)'', (Ark Paperbacks), 1990, ISBN 0-7448-0056-0
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Introductory texts
| + | |
| − | *''The Portable Jung'', edited by [[Joseph Campbell]] (Viking Portable), ISBN 0-14-015070-6
| + | |
| − | *Edward F Edinger, ''Ego and Archetype'', ([[Shambhala Publications]]), ISBN 0-87773-576-X
| + | |
| − | *Another recommended tool for navigating Jung's works is Robert Hopcke's book, ''A Guided Tour of the Collected Works of C.G. Jung'', ISBN 1-57062-405-4. He offers short, lucid summaries of all of Jung's major ideas and suggests readings from Jung's and others' work that best present that idea.
| + | |
| − | *Edward C. Whitmont, ''The Symbolic Quest: Basic Concepts of Analytical Psychology'', Princeton University Press, Princeton, New Jersey, 1969, 1979, ISBN 0-691-02454-5
| + | |
| − | * Anthony Stevens, ''Jung. A Very Short Introduction'', Oxford University Press, Oxford, 1994, ISBN 0-19-285458-5
| + | |
| − | *{{Cite book|author=O'Connor, Peter A. |title=Understanding Jung, understanding yourself |publisher=Paulist Press |location=New York, NY |year=1985|isbn=0809127997 |oclc= |doi=}}
| + | |
| − | *''The Cambridge Companion to Jung, second edition'', edited by Polly Young-Eisendrath and Terence Dawson, published in 2008 by [[Cambridge University Press]].
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Texts in various areas of Jungian thought
| + | |
| − | *Robert Aziz, ''C.G. Jung’s Psychology of Religion and Synchronicity'' (1990), currently in its 10th printing, is a refereed publication of [[The State University of New York Press]]. ISBN 0-7914-0166-9.
| + | |
| − | *Robert Aziz, ''Synchronicity and the Transformation of the Ethical in Jungian Psychology'' in Carl B. Becker, ed. ''Asian and Jungian Views of Ethics''. Westport, CT: Greenwood, 1999. ISBN 0-313-30452-1.
| + | |
| − | *Robert Aziz, ''The Syndetic Paradigm:The Untrodden Path Beyond Freud and Jung'' (2007), a refereed publication of The State University of New York Press. ISBN 978-0-7914-6982-8.
| + | |
| − | *Robert Aziz, Foreword in Lance Storm, ed. Synchronicity: Multiple Perspectives on Meaningful Coincidence. Pari, Italy: Pari Publishing, 2008. ISBN 978-88-95604-02-2
| + | |
| − | *[[Wallace Clift]], Jung and Christianity: The Challenge of Reconciliation. New York: The Crossroad Publishing Company, 1982. ISBN 0-8245-0409-7
| + | |
| − | *Edward F. Edinger, ''The Mystery of The Coniunctio'', ISBN 0-919123-67-8. A good explanation of Jung's foray into the symbolism of [[alchemy]] as it relates to individuation and individual religious experience. Many of the alchemical symbols recur in contemporary dreams (with creative additions from the unconscious e.g. space travel, internet, computers)
| + | |
| − | *[[Wolfgang Giegerich]], ''The Soul's Logical Life'', ISBN 3-631-38225-1. A critique and extension of Jungian Theory.
| + | |
| − | *James A Hall M.D., ''Jungian Dream Interpretation'', ISBN 0-919123-12-0. A brief, well structured overview of the use of dreams in therapy.
| + | |
| − | *[[James Hillman]], "Healing Fiction", ISBN 0-88214-363-8. Covers Jung, Adler, and Freud and their various contributions to understanding the soul.
| + | |
| − | *Andrew Samuels, ''Critical Dictionary of Jungian Analysis'', ISBN 0-415-05910-0
| + | |
| − | *June Singer, ''Boundaries of the Soul'', ISBN 0-385-47529-2. On psychotherapy
| + | |
| − | *[[Marion Woodman]], ''The Pregnant Virgin: A Process of Psychological Transformation'' ISBN 0-919123-20-1. The recovery of feminine values in women (and men). There are many examples of clients' dreams, by an experienced analyst.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Academic texts
| + | |
| − | *Andrew Samuels, ''The Political Psyche'' (Routledge), ISBN 0-415-08102-5.
| + | |
| − | *Lucy Huskinson, ''Nietzsche and Jung: The Whole Self in the Union of Opposites'' (Routledge), ISBN 1583918337 Excellent analysis of the highly significant anticipation and influence of the philosophy of Nietzsche on Jung.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Jung-Freud relationship
| + | |
| − | * Kerr, John. ''A Most Dangerous Method : The Story of Jung, Freud, and Sabina Spielrein.'' Knopf 1993. ISBN 0-679-40412-0.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Other people's recollections of Jung
| + | |
| − | * van der Post, Laurens, "Jung and the story of our time", New York : Pantheon Books, 1975. ISBN 0-394-49207-2
| + | |
| − | * Hannah, Barbara, "Jung, his life and work; a biographical memoir", New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1976. SBN: 399-50383-8
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Critical scholarship on Jung by historians
| + | |
| − | *[[Richard Noll]], The Jung Cult: Origins of a Charismatic Movement (Princeton University Press, 1994); and
| + | |
| − | *Richard Noll, The Aryan Christ: The Secret Life of Carl Jung (Random House, 1997)[http://www.beatrice.com/interviews/noll/]
| + | |
| − | *[[Sonu Shamdasani]], ''Cult Fictions'', ISBN 0-415-18614-5. Critique of the above works by Noll.
| + | |
| − | *Sonu Shamdasani, ''Jung and the Making of Modern Psychology : The Dream of a Science'', ISBN 0-521-53909-9. A comprehensive study of the origins of Jung's psychology which places it in a historical and philosophical context. The author calls this a "Cubist history".
| + | |
| − | *Sonu Shamdasani, ''Jung Stripped Bare'', ISBN 1-85575-317-0. Critique of Jung biographies.
| + | |
| − | *[[Deirdre Bair|Bair, Deirdre]]. ''Jung: A Biography''. Boston: Little, Brown and Co, 2003.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ;Works in the public domain
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.all-about-psychology.com/association-method.html The Association Method] Full text article from 1916. Originally Published in the Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology.
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.all-about-psychology.com/psychology-of-occult-phenomena.html On The Psychology & Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena] Full text article from 1916. Originally Published in the Collected Papers on Analytical Psychology.
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| − | {{Psychology}}
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| | | | |
| − | {{DEFAULTSORT:Jung, Carl Gustav}}
| + | [[Category:Mental health professionals]] |
| − | [[Category:Carl Jung| ]] | + | [[Category:Psychiatry]] |
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| − | [[Category:1961 deaths]]
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| − | [[Category:ETH Zurich faculty]]
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| − | [[Category:German-language philosophers]]
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| − | [[Category:History of mental health]]
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| − | [[Category:People associated with the University of Zurich]] | + | |
| − | [[Category:People from Thurgau]]
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| − | [[Category:Psychodynamics]]
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| − | [[Category:Psychologists of religion]]
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| − | [[Category:Psychology writers]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss astrologers]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss autobiographers]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss Christians]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss philosophers]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss psychiatrists]]
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| − | [[Category:Swiss psychologists]]
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| − | [[Category:Symbologists]]
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| − | [[Category:Western mystics]]
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| − | [[Category:University of Basel alumni]]
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Some psychiatric practitioners specialize in helping certain age groups. Child and adolescent psychiatrists work with children and teenagers in addressing psychological problems.[9] Those who work with the elderly are called geriatric psychiatrists or geropsychiatrists.[9] Some work with babies or pets. Those who practice psychiatry in the workplace are called organizational and occupational psychiatrists in the US (occupational psychology is the name used for the most similar discipline in the UK).[9] Psychiatrists working in the courtroom and reporting to the judge and jury, in both criminal and civil court cases, are called forensic psychiatrists, who also treat mentally disordered offenders and other patients whose condition is such that they have to be treated in secure units.[9][10]
Typically the requirements to become a psychiatrist are substantial but differ from country to country.[9][11]
