Self esteem
Self-esteem is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent", "I am worthy") and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a good writer and I feel happy about that") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a bad person, and feel bad about myself in general").
Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist.
Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: 'self-worth',[1] 'self-regard',[2] 'self-respect',[3][4] and 'self-integrity'. According to The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, "self-love" is "the instinct or desire to promote one's well-being".[5]
Contents
Definitions
The original definition presents self-esteem as a ratio found by dividing one’s successes in areas of life of importance to a given individual by the failures in them or one’s “success / pretensions”.[6] Problems with this approach come from making self-esteem contingent upon success: this implies inherent instability because failure can occur at any moment.[7] In the mid 1960s Morris Rosenberg and social-learning theorists defined self-esteem in terms of a stable sense of personal worth or worthiness.[8] Nathaniel Branden in 1969 defined self-esteem as "...the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life and being worthy of happiness". According to Branden, self-esteem is the sum of self-confidence (a feeling of personal capacity) and self-respect (a feeling of personal worth). It exists as a consequence of the implicit judgement that every person does about, on one side, his/her ability to face life's challenges, that is, to understand and solve problems, and, on the other side, his right to achieve happiness, or, in other words, to respect and defend his own interests and needs.[9] This two-factor approach, as some have also called it, provides a balanced definition that seems to be capable of dealing with limits of defining self-esteem primarily in terms of competence or worth alone.[10]
Branden’s description of self-esteem includes the following primary properties:
- self-esteem as a basic human need, i.e., "...it makes an essential contribution to the life process", "...is indispensable to normal and healthy self-development, and has a value for survival."
- self-esteem as an automatic and inevitable consequence of the sum of individuals' choices in using their consciousness
- something experienced as a part of, or background to, all of the individuals thoughts, feelings and actions.
Branden's concept of self-esteem is graduated, involving three main levels:
- To have a high self-esteem is to feel confidently capable for life, or, in Branden's words, to feel able and worthy, or to feel right as a person.[9]
- To have a low self-esteem corresponds to not feeling ready for life, or to feeling wrong as a person.[9]
- To have a middle ground self-esteem is to waver between the two states above, that is, to feel able and useless, right and wrong as a person, and to show these incongruities in behavior, acting at times wisely, and at rashly others, thus reinforcing insecurity.[9]
Implicit self-esteem refers to a person's disposition to evaluate themselves positively or negatively in a spontaneous, automatic, or unconscious manner. It contrasts with explicit self-esteem, which entails more conscious and reflective self-evaluation. Both explicit self-esteem and implicit self-esteem are subtypes of self-esteem proper. Implicit self-esteem is assessed using indirect measures of cognitive processing, including the Name Letter Task[11] Such indirect measures are designed to reduce awareness of, or control of, the process of assessment. When used to assess implicit self-esteem, they feature stimuli designed to represent the self, such as personal pronouns (e.g., "I") or letters in one's name.
Variations
Level and quality of self-esteem, though correlated, remain distinct. One can exhibit low levels of high-quality self esteem and/or high levels of low-quality self esteem, resulting in 'fragile' self-esteem (as in narcissism) or low but stable self-esteem (as in humility). However, investigators can indirectly assess the quality of self-esteem in several ways:
- in terms of its constancy over time (stability)
- in terms of its independence of meeting particular conditions (non-contingency)
- in terms of its ingrained nature at a basic psychological level (implicitness or automatized)
Measurement
For the purposes of empirical research, psychologists typically assess self-esteem by a self-report inventory yielding a quantitative result. They establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire prior to its use.
Whereas popular lore recognizes just "high" self-esteem and "low" self-esteem, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (1965) and the Coopersmith Self-Esteem Inventory (1967/1981) both quantify it in more detail, and feature among the most widely used systems for measuring self-esteem. The Rosenberg test usually uses a ten-question battery scored on a four-point response system that requires participants to indicate their level of agreement with a series of statements about themselves. The Coopersmith Inventory uses a 50-question battery over a variety of topics and asks subjects whether they rate someone as similar or dissimilar to themselves.[12]
Positive indicators
People with a healthy level of self-esteem[13]
- firmly believe in certain values and principles, and are ready to defend them even when finding opposition, feeling secure enough to modify them in light of experience.[14]
- are able to act according to what they think to be the best choice, trusting their own judgement, and not feeling guilty when others don't like their choice.[14]
- do not lose time worrying excessively about what happened in the past, nor about what could happen in the future. They learn from the past and plan for the future, but live in the present intensely.[14]
- fully trusts in their capacity to solve problems, not hesitating after failures and difficulties. They ask others for help when they need it.[14]
- consider themselves equal in dignity to others, rather than inferior or superior, while accepting differences in certain talents, personal prestige or financial standing.[14]
- take for granted that he is an interesting and valuable person for others, at least for those with whom he has a friendship.[14]
- resist manipulation, collaborate with others only if it seems appropriate and convenient.[14]
- admits and accepts different internal feelings and drives, either positive or negative, revealing those drives to others only when they choose.[14]
- are able to enjoy a great variety of activities.[14]
- are sensitive to feelings and needs of others; respect generally accepted social rules, and claim no right or desire to prosper at others' expense.[14]
Negative indicators
A person with low self-esteem may show some of the following symptoms:[15]
- Heavy self-criticism, tending to create a habitual state of dissatisfaction with oneself.[14]
- Hypersensitivity to criticism, which makes oneself feel easily attacked and experience obstinate resentment against critics.[14]
- Chronic indecision, not so much because of lack of information, but from an exaggerated fear of making a mistake.[14]
- Excessive will to please: being unwilling to say "no", out of fear of displeasing the petitioner.[14]
- Perfectionism, or self-demand to do everything attempted "perfectly" without a single mistake, which can lead to frustration when perfection is not achieved.[14]
- Neurotic guilt: one is condemned for behaviors which not always are objectively bad, exaggerates the magnitude of mistakes or offenses and complains about them indefinitely, never reaching full forgiveness.[14]
- Floating hostility, irritability out in the open, always on the verge of exploding even for unimportant things; an attitude characteristic of somebody who feels bad about everything, who is disappointed or unsatisfied with everything.[14]
- Defensive tendencies, a general negative (one is pessimistic about everything: life, future, and, above all, oneself) and a general lack of will to enjoy life.[14]
Theories
Many early theories suggested that self-esteem is a basic human need or motivation. American psychologist Abraham Maslow, for example, included self-esteem in his hierarchy of needs. He described two different forms of esteem: the need for respect from others and the need for self-respect, or inner self-esteem.[16] Respect from others entails recognition, acceptance, status, and appreciation, and was believed to be more fragile and easily lost than inner self-esteem. According to Maslow, without the fulfillment of the self-esteem need, individuals will be driven to seek it and unable to grow and obtain self-actualization.
Modern theories of self-esteem explore the reasons humans are motivated to maintain a high regard for themselves. Sociometer theory maintains that self-esteem evolved to check one's level of status and acceptance in ones' social group. According to terror management theory, self-esteem serves a protective function and reduces anxiety about life and death.[17]
Interventions
A number of interventions that attempt to improve self-esteem have been developed, implemented, and studied. These interventions have been tailored to address the unique characteristics of specific groups including adolescents, adults, and special populations. Some examples of these interventions include:
- FRIENDS Emotional Health Program - This intervention consists of 10 sessions that focus on teaching 9-10 year old children to replace unhelpful and anxiety producing thoughts with helpful thoughts. The intervention was developed to teach children to face and overcome challenges and problems. In order to do this children are introduced to a 7-step process: F-feeling worried? R- relax and feel good, I- inner thoughts, E- explore thoughts, N- nice work so reward yourself, D- don't forget to practice, S- stay calm, you know how to cope. Studies of the intervention performed in the US, UK, and Hong Kong have all shown significant increase in measures of self-esteem in children who participated in the program.[18][19]
- Self-Esteem Enhancement Program (SEEP) Dalgas-Pelish reported that many decreases in self-esteem have been observed during the transition from elementary to middle school and therefore found that it is very important to provide preventative self-esteem interventions at a young age. The intervention included 4 lessons consisting of definitions of self-esteem, awareness of how the media and peers influence self-esteem, and activities related to the improvement of self-esteem. Factors affecting self-esteem that were taken into account include: gender, ethnicity, age, socioeconomic status, genetic size, health, home environment, relationships with parents, parenting style, and relationships with friends. Increases in measures of self-esteem were displayed among the children who participated. Increase was related to gender of the child, socioeconomic status, and the presence of friends. The largest increases were seen in girls, individuals with low socio-economic status, and children with friends.[20]
- Social Cognitive Training Intervention Barrett, Webster, Wallis developed an intervention that consisted of self talk and modification of negative thinking, use of positive thinking, communication, problem solving and perception, processes of instruction, coaching, modeling, rehearsal, self observation, group trainer and peer feedback, and praise. These techniques were intended to shape and reinforce new and improved skills. Participants also completed weekly homework assignments. Fifty-one students ages 13–16 participated in the intervention and showed significant increase in measures of self-esteem.[21]
- I Am Super Self-Esteem Module - This intervention was developed in Québec, Canada by Tania Lacomte and colleagues in an effort to increase the self esteem of those suffering from psychosis, specifically individuals diagnosed with Schizophrenia. This 24 session, group therapy module is divided into 5 building blocks that assist individuals in developing their senses of: security, identity, belonging, purpose, and competence. One study conducted by Borras, et al. (2009) found that intervention participants displayed increases in self-esteem, self-assertion, and coping strategies as well as decreased negative automatic thoughts, and psychotic symptoms[22]
Self-esteem, grades and relationships
From the late 1970s to the early 1990s many Americans assumed as a matter of course that students' self-esteem acted as a critical factor in the grades that they earn in school, in their relationships with their peers, and in their later success in life. Under this assumption, some American groups created programs which aimed to increase the self-esteem of students. Until the 1990s little peer-reviewed and controlled research took place on this topic.
Peer-reviewed research undertaken since then has not validated previous assumptions. Recent research indicates that inflating students' self-esteem in and of itself has no positive effect on grades. One study has shown that inflating self-esteem by itself can actually decrease grades.[23] The relationship involving self-esteem and academic results does not signify that high self-esteem contributes to high academic results. It simply means that high self-esteem may be accomplished due to high academic performance.[24]
"Attempts by pro-esteem advocates to encourage self-pride in students solely by reason of their uniqueness as human beings will fail if feelings of well-being are not accompanied by well-doing. It is only when students engage in personally meaningful endeavors for which they can be justifiably proud that self-confidence grows, and it is this growing self-assurance that in turn triggers further achievement."[25]
High self-esteem correlates highly with self-reported happiness. However, it is not clear which, if either, necessarily leads to the other.[24] Additionally, self-esteem has been found to be related to forgiveness in close relationships, in that people with high self-esteem will be more forgiving than people with low self-esteem.[26]
Just start believing them. Even if you dont think you are im sure you are. Every one is bieutaful weather its in there personality or their looks, So just think of the glass half full instead of half empty.
Just finished rendaig your article on the situation in Greece. I'm very impressed by how well you illustrated the angles you chose to cover, and I'm a little sad that you couldn't cover everything.I also feel kinda bad. When I finished rendaig the bit where you described the possible motives for why people would want the Greek economy to flop like a fish out of water, the word Cool! went through my head. I'm a poor, starving college student and I have nothing against Greece. I think I thought it was cool was because clever motives like that fascinate me. Yes it's evil, yes it's corrupt. But I'll be a monkey's uncle if it isn't clever.And while I was thrashing this out with myself, I got to thinking, What if it's all three? All of it could, in fact, be fueled by racism, and profit is simply a bonus.Start with number 3: Hatred for Greece. How can German and the rest of Europe make an example of the Greeks and put them, as I'm sure they would say, in their place ? Someone notes for whatever reason that Greece is a hot tourist spot and that large profits could be gained from the islands. So someone suggests that they take financial control of the islands. But how?Credit default swaps. They start taking out fire insurance on their neighbor's house. They get it for a low cost and start betting against Greece's financial situation. If the country defaults, they just won the lottery, a week's worth of money at five or six poker tables (each), and every horse race for the next century. And where does this fortune go? Why, to buying footholds in Greek tourism. These footholds are quickly followed by butt-holds, more commonly known as recliner chairs, couches, and what have you.Racism is more than just a motive, though: It's also a means. If I understood correctly, Greece is using the Euro and the accompanying prices, but their wages haven't changed a bit. People are getting payed the same amount, but prices got jacked up. So people are in a really crappy financial situation and desperately need outside help.And here figures in the racism. Keep the rest of Europe poised against Greece and they won't help at all. With a corrupt government currently in place, the economy will sink lower and lower until the country defaults because no one wants to help these heathens .How the corrupt government got there I don't know. It may have been planted, or it might simply be what a friend of mine would call a happy accident . At least, from the point of view of those wanting Greece to fall. Either way, it's the wrong thing in the right place at the right time. and Cool! just went through my head again. I feel bad.
Further reading
- Branden, N. (1969). The psychology of self-esteem. New York: Bantam.
- Branden, N. (2001). The psychology of self-esteem: a revolutionary approach to self-understanding that launched a new era in modern psychology. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 2001. ISBN 0-7879-4526-9
- Burke, C. (2008)"Self-esteem: Why?; Why not?", [Homiletic and Pastoral Review, New York, February 2008]; http://cormacburke.or.ke
- Franklin, Richard L. (1994). "Overcoming The Myth of Self-Worth: Reason and Fallacy in What You Say to Yourself". ISBN 0963938703
- Hill, S.E. & Buss, D.M. (2006). "The Evolution of Self-Esteem". In Michael Kernis, (Ed.), Self Esteem: Issues and Answers: A Sourcebook of Current Perspectives.. Psychology Press:New York. 328-333. Full text
- Lerner, Barbara (1985). "Self-Esteem and Excellence: The Choice and the Paradox", American Educator, Winter 1985.
- Maslow A. H. (1987). Motivation and Personality (3rd ed.). New York: Harper & Row.
- Mecca, Andrew M., et al., (1989). The Social Importance of Self-esteem University of California Press, 1989. (ed; other editors included Neil J. Smelser and John Vasconcellos)
- Rodewalt, F. & Tragakis, M. W. (2003). "Self-esteem and self-regulation: Toward optimal studies of self-esteem". Psychological Inquiry, 14(1), 66–70.
- Ruggiero, Vincent R. (2000). "Bad Attitude: Confronting the Views That Hinder Student's Learning" American Educator.
- Sedikides, C., & Gregg. A. P. (2003). "Portraits of the self." In M. A. Hogg & J. Cooper (Eds.), Sage handbook of social psychology (pp. 110–138). London: Sage Publications.
- Twenge, Jean M. (2007). Generation Me: Why Today's Young Americans Are More Confident, Assertive, Entitled — and More Miserable Than Ever Before. Free Press. ISBN 978-0-7432-7698-6
