Difference between revisions of "Positive psychology"

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−	{{Psychology sidebar}}	+	Everyone loves what you guys tend to be up too. This sort of clever work and ceoarvge! Maintain up the great works guys Ive added you guys to my blog rolls.
−	'''Positive psychology''' is a recent branch of [[psychology]] whose purpose was summed up in 2000 by [[Martin Seligman]] and [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi]]: "We believe that a psychology of positive human functioning will arise that achieves a scientific understanding and effective interventions to build [[thriving]] in individuals, families, and communities."<ref>{{cite journal|last=Seligman	+
−	|first=Martin E.P.	+
−	|authorlink=	+
−	|coauthors=[[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly]]	+
−	|title=Positive Psychology: An Introduction	+
−	|journal=American Psychologist	+
−	|volume=55	+
−	|issue=1	+
−	|pages=5–14	+
−	|year=2000|doi=10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5|pmid=11392865}}</ref> Positive psychologists seek "to find and nurture genius and talent", and "to make normal life more fulfilling",<ref name="IPP1">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|year=2005|pages=1–22|chapter=1|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> not simply to treat [[mental illness]]. The field is intended to complement, not to replace traditional psychology.	+
−		+
−	By scientifically studying what has gone right, rather than wrong in both individuals and societies, Positive Psychology hopes to achieve a renaissance of sorts. Many [[List of positive psychologists|researchers have joined]] the positive psychology movement, and it continues to generate influential and well-cited articles in mainstream, top-tier journals.	+
−		+
−	==Background==	+
−	Several [[Humanistic psychology|humanistic]] psychologists—such as [[Abraham Maslow]], [[Carl Rogers]], and [[Erich Fromm]]—developed theories and practices that involved human happiness. Recently the theories of human flourishing developed by these humanistic psychologists have found empirical support from studies by positive psychologists. Positive psychology has also moved ahead in a number of new directions.	+
−		+
−	Positive psychology began as a new area of psychology in 1998 when [[Martin Seligman]], considered the father of the modern positive psychology movement,<ref>Goldberg, Carey. [http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/03/10/harvards_crowded_course_to_happiness/ "Harvard's crowded course to happiness."] ''The Boston Globe''. March 10, 2006.</ref> chose it as the theme for his term as president of the [[American Psychological Association]],<ref name="Time">{{cite web|url=http://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/images/TimeMagazine/Time-Happiness.pdf |title=Time Magazine's cover story in the special issue on "The Science of Happiness", 2005 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> though the term originates with [[Abraham Maslow|Maslow]], in his 1954 book ''Motivation and Personality'',<ref>Note: the last chapter is entitled "Toward a Positive Psychology".</ref> and there have been indications that psychologists since the 1950s have been increasingly focused on promoting mental health rather than merely treating illness.<ref name=twsMay18g45r>{{cite news	+
−	|author= J. Secker	+
−	|title= Current conceptualizations of mental health and mental health promotion	+
−	|publisher= Health Education Research	+
−	|quote= ... Amongst psychologists ... the importance of promoting health rather than simply preventing ill-health date back to the 1950s (Jahoda, 1958). ... see page 58	+
−	|issue=vol. 13 no. 1	+
−	|year= 1998	+
−	|url= http://www.her.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/reprint/13/1/57.pdf	+
−	|accessdate= 2010-05-18	+
−	}}</ref><ref name=twsMay18dwwe>{{cite news	+
−	|author= Dianne Hales	+
−	|title= An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition	+
−	|publisher= Wadsworth Cengage Learning	+
−	|quote= see page 26 for discussion on Positive Psychology regarding Martin Seligman's conception	+
−	|year= 2010	+
−	|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=oP91HVIMPRIC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=%22democracy%22+%22mentally+healthy+person%22+description&source=bl&ots=ws3VY1Q_8u&sig=Y0eVG5AZQWzV6EyTM85fnh0Hb-A&hl=en&ei=ehHzS_fiFYG-9QTB3cxa&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CEEQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false	+
−	|accessdate= 2010-05-18	+
−	}}</ref> Seligman pointed out that for the half century clinical psychology "has been consumed by a single topic only - mental illness",<ref>[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]] (2002). ''Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment''. New York: Simon and Schuster. p. xi. ISBN 0-7432-2297-0.</ref> echoing Maslow’s comments.<ref>"The science of psychology has been far more successful on the negative than on the positive side. It has revealed to us much about man’s shortcomings, his illness, his sins, but little about his potentialities, his virtues, his achievable aspirations, or his full psychological height. It is as if psychology has voluntarily restricted itself to only half its rightful jurisdiction, than the darker, meaner half." (Maslow, Motivation and Psychology, p. 354).</ref> He urged psychologists to continue the earlier missions of psychology of nurturing talent and improving normal life.<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	The first positive psychology summit took place in 1999. The First International Conference on Positive Psychology took place in 2002.<ref name="IPP1"/> More attention was given by the general public in 2006 when, using the same framework, a course at [[Harvard University]] became particularly popular.<ref name="Happier">Ben-Shahar, Ben (2007) "Happier -Learn the Secrets to Daily Joy and Lasting Fulfillment", First Edition, McGraw-Hill Co.</ref> In June 2009, the First World Congress on Positive Psychology took place.<ref>Reuters, Jun 18, 2009: [http://www.reuters.com/article/pressRelease/idUS130343+18-Jun-2009+PRN20090618 First World Congress on Positive Psychology Kicks Off Today With Talks by Two of the World's Most Renowned Psychologists]</ref>	+
−		+
−	===Historical roots===	+
−	Positive psychology finds its roots in the [[humanistic psychology]] of the 20th century, which focused heavily on happiness and fulfillment. Earlier influences on positive psychology came primarily from philosophical and religious sources, as scientific psychology did not take its modern form until the late 19th century. (See [[History of psychology]])	+
−		+
−	[[Judaism]] promotes a [[Divine command theory]] of happiness: happiness and rewards follow from following the commands of the divine.<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	The ancient Greeks had many schools of thought. [[Socrates]] advocated [[Self-knowledge (psychology)|self-knowledge]] as the path to happiness.  [[Plato|Plato's]] [[allegory of the cave]] influenced western thinkers who believe that happiness is found by finding deeper meaning. Aristotle believed that happiness, or [[eudaimonia]] is constituted by rational activity in accordance with [[virtue]] over a complete life. The [[Epicureanism|Epicureans]] believed in reaching happiness through the enjoyment of simple pleasures. The [[Stoicism|Stoics]] believed they could remain happy by being objective and [[logos|reasonable]].<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	[[Christianity]] continued to follow the Divine command theory of happiness. In the [[Middle Ages]], Christianity taught that true happiness would not be found until the [[afterlife]]. The [[seven deadly sins]] are about earthly self-indulgence and [[narcissism]]. On the other hand, the [[Four Cardinal Virtues]] and [[Three Theological Virtues]] were supposed to keep one from sin.<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	During the [[Renaissance]] and [[Age of Enlightenment]], [[individualism]] came to be valued. Simultaneously, [[Creativity|creative]] individuals gained prestige, as they were now considered to be artists, not just craftsmen. [[Utilitarianism|Utilitarian]] philosophers such as [[John Stuart Mill]] believed that moral actions are those actions that maximize [[happiness]] for the most number of people, suggesting an [[Empiricism|empirical]] [[science]] of happiness should be used to determine which actions are moral (a [[science of morality]]). [[Thomas Jefferson]] and other proponents of [[democracy]] believed that "[[Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness]]" are inalienable rights, and that it justifies the overthrow of the government.<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	The [[Romanticism|Romantics]] valued individual emotional expression and sought their emotional "true selves," which were unhindered by social norms. At the same time, love and intimacy became the main motivations for people to get [[marriage|married]].<ref name="IPP1"/>	+
−		+
−	==Methods==	+
−	"Happiness" encompasses many different emotional and mental phenomena (see below). One method of assessment is [[Ed Diener]]'s Satisfaction with Life Scale. This 5-question survey corresponds well with impressions from friends and family, and low incidences of depression.<ref name=NYSciHap/>	+
−		+
−	[[File:John Singleton Copley 003.jpg|thumb|The "Remembering self" may not be the best source of information for pleasing the "Experiencing self"]]	+
−	Rather than long-term, big picture appraisals, some methods attempt to identify the amount of positive affect from one activity to the next. Some scientists use beepers to remind volunteers to write down the details of their current situation. Alternatively, volunteers complete detailed diary entries each morning about the day before.<ref name=NYSciHap/> An interesting discrepancy arises when researchers compare the results of these short-term "experience sampling" methods, with long-term appraisals. Namely, the latter may not be very accurate; people may not know what makes their life pleasant from one moment to the next. For instance, parents' appraisals mention their children as sources of pleasure, and yet 'experience sampling' indicates that they were not enjoying caring for their children compared to other activities.<ref name=NYSciHap/><ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/eng/daniel_kahneman_the_riddle_of_experience_vs_memory.html |title=Daniel Kahneman: The riddle of experience vs. memory &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Psychologist [[Daniel Kahneman]] explains this discrepancy by differentiating between happiness according to the 'Experiencing Self' compared to the 'Remembering Self'. Kahneman explains that, when we are asked to reflect on experiences, [[List of memory biases|memory biases]] like the Peak-End effect (e.g. we mostly remember the dramatic parts of a vacation, and how it was at the end) play a large role. One of his more striking findings was in a study of colonoscopy patients. By ''adding'' 60 seconds to this invasive procedure, Kahneman actually got participants to report the colonoscopy as ''more'' pleasant. He accomplished this by making sure that, for the extra 60 seconds, the colonoscopy instrument was not moved, since movement is the source of the most discomfort. Thus, Kahneman was appealing to the Remembering Self's tendency to focus on the end of the experience. Such findings help explain human error in [[Affective forecasting]] - people's ability to predict their future emotional states.<ref name="autogenerated1"/>	+
−		+
−	[[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Michael Argyle]] developed the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire<ref>[http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/oxford-happiness-questionnaire/214/Oxford Happiness Questionnaire] by Michael Argyle and Peter Hills, a survey of current level of happiness. See also discussion in Hills, P., & Argyle, M. (2002). The Oxford Happiness Questionnaire: a compact scale for the measurement of	+
−	psychological well-being. ''Personality and Individual Differences'', 33, 1073–1082.</ref> as a broad measure of psychological well-being.  This has been criticized as an aggregate of [[self-esteem]], sense of purpose, social interest and [[kindness]], sense of [[humor]] and aesthetic appreciation.<ref>The approach has been criticized as overlapping too much with related concepts, and for lacking a theoretical model of happiness. {{cite journal	+
−	| first = Todd B.	+
−	| last = Kashdan	+
−	| url = http://mason.gmu.edu/~tkashdan/publications/happy.PDF	+
−	| title = The assessment of subjective well-being (issues raised by the Oxford Happiness Questionnaire)	+
−	| journal = Personality and Individual Differences	+
−	| year = 2004	+
−	| pages = 1225–1232	+
−	| volume = 36	+
−	| doi = 10.1016/S0191-8869(03)00213-7	+
−	}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	==== Neuroscientific approach====	+
−	Neuroscience and brain imaging has shown increasing potential for helping science understand happiness and sadness. Though it may be impossible to achieve any comprehensive measure of happiness objectively, some physiological correlates to happiness can be measured. [[Stefan Klein]], in his book ''The Science of Happiness'', links the dynamics of [[Neurobiology|neurobiological]] systems (i.e., dopaminergic, opiate) to the concepts and findings of positive psychology and social psychology.<ref>{{cite book	+
−	| first = Stefan	+
−	| last =  Klein	+
−	| authorlink = Stefan Klein	+
−	| title =  The Science of Happiness	+
−	| publisher =  Marlowe & Company	+
−	| year = 2006	+
−	| isbn = 1-56924-328-X	+
−	}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Nobel prize winner [[Eric Kandel]] and researcher [http://www.iop.kcl.ac.uk/staff/profile/default.aspx?go=10396 Cynthia Fu] describe their findings that [[Major depressive disorder|depression]] can be diagnosed very accurately just by looking at fMRI brain scans.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wnyc.org/shows/radiolab/episodes/2008/12/05 |title=Diagnosis - Radiolab |publisher=Wnyc.org |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−	The idea is that, by identifying [[neural correlate]]s for [[emotions]], scientists may be able to use methods like [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging|brain scans]] to tell us more about all the different ways of being "happy".	+
−		+
−	====Evolutionary approach====	+
−	The evolutionary perspective offers an alternative approach to understand what happiness or quality of life is about. Briefly, it focuses on the questions: What features are included in the brain that allow humans to distinguish between positive and negative states of mind, and how do these features improve humans' ability to survive and reproduce? It claims that answering these questions points towards an understanding of what happiness is about and how to best exploit the capacities of the brain with which humans are endowed. This perspective is presented formally and in detail by the evolutionary biologist[[Bjørn Grinde]] in his book ''[[Darwinian Happiness]]''.<ref>{{cite journal	+
−	| last = Grinde	+
−	| first = Bjørn	+
−	| year = 2002	+
−	| title = Happiness in the perspective of evolutionary psychology	+
−	| journal = Journal of Happiness Studies	+
−	| volume = 3	+
−	| pages = 331–354	+
−	| doi = 10.1023/A:1021894227295}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	==General findings by topic==	+
−	[[File:Niavaranpalacemirror.jpg|thumb|right|Money, once one reaches middle class, may be best spent ensuring one's job and social ties are enjoyable]]	+
−		+
−	===Buying happiness===	+
−	<br>Ignoring the saying "money can't buy you happiness", industrialized nations like the [[United States]] place a strong emphasis on the acquisition of wealth and luxuries.<ref>Howard Gardner's "Excellence in Education", http://feeds.tvo.org/tvobigideasVideo</ref> In one American study, for instance, people were happier after spending money on experiences, rather than physical things.<ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=121908647NPR.org]</ref>	+
−		+
−	In his book [[Stumbling on Happiness]], psychologist [[Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Dan Gilbert]] describes research suggesting that money makes a big difference to the poor (where basic needs are not yet met) but has greatly diminished effects once one reaches middle class (i.e. the [[Easterlin paradox]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/12/08/1015962107 |title=The happiness–income paradox revisited — PNAS |publisher=Pnas.org |date=2010-12-13 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Professor of Economics [[Richard Easterlin]] notes that job satisfaction does not depend on salary. In other words, having extra money for luxuries does not increase happiness as much as enjoying one's job or social network. Gilbert is thus adamant that people should go to great lengths in order to (a) figure out which jobs they would enjoy and (b) find a way to do one of those jobs for a living (that is, provided one is also attentive to their social ties).	+
−		+
−	===Education and intelligence===	+
−	English poet [[Thomas Grey]] said "''Where ignorance is bliss, Tis folly to be wise.''"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Ignorance+is+bliss |title=Ignorance is bliss &#124; Define Ignorance is bliss at Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Research suggests that neither a good education nor a high IQ reliably increase happiness.<ref name=NYSciHap>{{cite news|last=Wallis |first=Claudia |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1015902-1,00.html |title=Science of Happiness: New Research on Mood, Satisfaction |publisher=TIME |date=2005-01-09 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−	[[Anders Ericsson]] argues that an IQ above 120 has a decreasing influence on success. Presumably, IQs above 120 do not go much further to cause other happiness indicators like success (with the exception of careers like [[Theoretical physics]], where high IQs are more predictive of success). Above that IQ level, other factors start to matter more, like social skills or a good mentor.<ref>http://www.coachingmanagement.nl/The%20Making%20of%20an%20Expert.pdf</ref> One of the main benefits of intelligence and education may simply be that it allows one to reach the middle-class level of need satisfaction (as mentioned above, being richer than this seems to do little for happiness).<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722557 |title=Comparing countries: The rich, the poor and Bulgaria |publisher=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Martin Seligman has said that "As a professor, I don't like this, but the cerebral virtues — curiosity, love of learning — are less strongly tied to happiness than interpersonal virtues like kindness, gratitude and capacity for love."<ref name=NYSciHap/>	+
−		+
−	===Parenting===	+
−	One study found having up to three children increased happiness among married couples, but not among other groups with children.<ref name="Angeles" /> While parenting is sometimes held as the necessary path of adulthood, studies are actually mixed as to whether parents are more likely to report being happier than non-parents.<ref name="Angeles">[http://www.smartplanet.com/business/blog/smart-takes/married-and-unhappy-have-more-kids-study-says/1942/SmartPlanet.com]</ref><ref>{{cite web	+
−	| url = http://www.economist.com/world/na/PrinterFriendly.cfm?story_id=10924082	+
−	| title = The joys of parenthood	+
−	| publisher = [[The Economist]]	+
−	| date = 2008-03-27	+
−	}}</ref><ref>{{cite book	+
−	| first = Arthur C.	+
−	| last = Brooks	+
−	| title = Gross National Happiness: Why Happiness Matters for America – and How We Can Get More of It	+
−	| publisher = Basic Books	+
−	| year = 2008	+
−	| isbn = 978-0465002788	+
−	| author = link = Arthur C. Brooks	+
−	}}</ref>  Proponents of [[Childfreedom]] maintain that this is because one can enjoy a happy, productive life without ever being a parent.	+
−		+
−	===Weather===	+
−	There is some evidence that suggests that sunnier climates do not predict happiness. In one study, both Californians and Midwesterners expected the former's happiness ratings to be higher due to a sunnier environment. In fact, the Californian and Midwestern happiness ratings did not show a significant difference.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other researchers say the minimum [[Health effects of sun exposure|daily-dose of sunlight]] is as little as 30min.<ref>{{cite web|last=Aaronson |first=Lauren |url=http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200512/happiness-is-beach-sometimes |title=Happiness Is a Beach, Sometimes |publisher=Psychology Today |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> That is not to say this sunlight exposure is unimportant, or that the weather is never a factor for happiness. Some psychologists suggest changing norms of sunlight can cause [[Seasonal affective disorder]].	+
−		+
−	===Religion===	+
−	Various studies have confirmed that [[Religion and happiness]] often appear together. There is now debate as to exactly why this is the case, however. Liesbeth Snoep describes research suggesting that religiosity may ''not'' correlate with happiness in more atheistic cultures - even though these cultures (e.g. [[Denmark]]) are some of the happiest in the world. She suggests that religion may help with happiness through confounding variables. In other words, religion may cause happiness to the extent that it can provide the other components of a happy life (e.g. discussed on this page).	+
−		+
−	===Getting happier===	+
−	The human ability of emotional ''Hedonic Adaptation'' explains why beauty, fame and money do not generally have lasting effects on happiness (this effect has also been called the [[Hedonic treadmill]]). The tendency to adapt is clearly illustrated by studies showing that lottery winners are no happier years later.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other studies have shown that, after equally few years, [[Paraplegia|paraplegics]] are almost as happy as control groups that are not paralyzed (p.&nbsp;48<ref name="Seligman2002"/>). Daniel Kahneman explains that "they are not paraplegic full time...It has to do with allocation of attention". Contrary to our [[impact bias]]es, lotteries and paraplegia do not change experiences in the ways we think, or even to as great a degree. After adaptation, the paraplegics almost returned to their baseline happiness. Adaptation is much slower for other distracting life changes, like the death of a spouse, or losing one's job. These events can show measurable changes in happiness levels for several years.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Thus, adaptation ''does'' mitigate the emotional effects of many life events, but not entirely.	+
−		+
−	[[File:LyubomirskyHappiness.jpg|thumb|right|Some research suggests that large portions of happiness are within a human's control]]	+
−	Research indicates that genetics play a very significant role in determining one's baselines happiness levels, according to David Lykken.<ref name=NYSciHap/> In her book [[The How of Happiness]], [[Sonja Lyubomirsky]] similarly argues that people`s happiness varies around a genetic set point. Importantly, an individual's base-line happiness is not ''entirely'' determined by their genetics and early life effects on those genetics (although [[Antidepressants]] can be quite important for some people). Whether or not a person manages to elevate their base-line to the heights of their genetic possibilities depends partly on factors including actions and habits. Some happiness-boosting habits seem to include gratitude, appreciation, and even altruistic behaviour.<ref name=NYSciHap/> Other habits and techniques of increasing happiness have emerged from research and are discussed on this page.	+
−		+
−	Besides training new habits and antidepressants, getting better [[excercise]] and a healthier [[Diet (nutrition)|diet]] have proven to have strong effects on mood.	+
−		+
−	===Age===	+
−	<br>The [[Midlife crisis]] may mark a low point in the average human's life, rather than a sudden event.<ref name=NYSciHap/> There is evidence that supports a "U-bend", the idea that people get less and less happy until about age 46, then begin to get happier again. This finding is based on decades of data, and controls for cohort groups (e.g. avoids the risk that the data is due to a particularly bad midlife experience (like a war) ocuring at midlife for one particular sample). The studies have also controlled for income, job status and parenting versus [[childfreedom]] to try and isolate the effects of age, supporting the notion the changes may be on the inside of the individual. This could be for any number of reasons: a greater awareness of one's self and preferences, or an ability to control desires; getting closer to death may motivate people to pursue more goals; improved social skills like forgiveness can take years to develop; it may also be that the tendency for wisdom and perspective comes with age.<ref name=EcoAgeHap>{{cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/17722567 |title=Age and happiness: The U-bend of life |publisher=The Economist |date=2010-12-16 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Other studies have found that older individuals report more health problems, but fewer problems overall. Young adults reported more anger, anxiety, depression, financial problems, troubled relationships and career stress. Researchers also suggest that depression in the elderly is often due largely to passivity and inaction - they recommend that people continue to do the things that bring happiness, even in old age.<ref>{{cite news	+
−	| first = Shankar	+
−	| last = Vedantam	+
−	| url =http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/07/13/AR2008071301641.html?hpid=sec-health	+
−	| title = Older Americans May Be Happier Than Younger Ones	+
−	| publisher = [[The Washington Post]]	+
−	| date = 2008-07-14	+
−	}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	secondary source caiitton: If the caiitton is the work of one FOR FOOTNOTES: author found in the works of another is as follows:  Louis Zukosky,  Sincerity and Objectification,  Poetry (underlined) 37:269 quoted in Bonnie Costello, Imaginary Possessions (underlined) (London:harvard University Press. 1981), 78.2. multivolume work as follows: Samuelson Pam, The Renaissance (underlined) in A Literary History of Europe (underlined) ed. Albert P Paul. New York: Century Press, 1978. FOR A BIBLIOGRAPHY 1. multivolume work with a general title and editor:    Ray, Gordon., ed. 1958. An Introduction to the Alps (underlined). Vol 2. The History of Europe (underlined) by Hubert Hoffy.  Boston: Houghlin Miffin Co.2. Part by one author in a work by another:  Beech, Mary.  The Women of Southern India.  In Studies of the Peoples of Asia (underlined) ed. Hanna Parsons. 110-38.  London:University Press. 1994.I hope you get the general drift .	+
−		+
−	===Marriage===	+
−	<br>[[Martin Seligman]] writes that "Unlike money, which has at most a small effect, marriage is robustly related to happiness.... In my opinion, the [[Correlation does not imply causation|jury is still out on what causes]] the proven fact that married people are happier than unmarried people." (pp.&nbsp;55–56<ref name="Seligman2002"/>) On the other hand, at least one large study in Germany found no difference in happiness between married and unmarried people.<ref>[http://www.psychologytoday.com/articles/200303/marriage-is-not-the-key-happinessMarriage Is Not the Key to Happiness], by Anne Becker, ''Psychology Today'', March 18, 2003.</ref>	+
−		+
−	===Personality===	+
−	<br>An emotionally stable (the opposite of [[Neuroticism|Neurotic]]) personality correlates well with happiness. Not only does emotional stability make one less prone to negative emotions, it also predicts higher social intelligence - which helps to manage relationships with others (an important part of being happy, discussed below).<ref name=EcoAgeHap/> Cultivating an [[Extroversion|extroverted]] personality may correlate with happiness for the same reason: it builds relationships and support groups. Some people may be lucky, then, that many [[Personality psychology|personality theories]] leave room for the idea that individuals have some control over their long term behaviours and cognitions.	+
−		+
−	===Social ties===	+
−		+
−	A widely publicized study from 2008 in the ''[[British Medical Journal]]'' reported that happiness in [[social network]]s may spread from person to person.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Dynamic Spread of Happiness in a Large Social Network: Longitudinal Analysis Over 20 Years in the Framingham Heart Study|author=[[James H. Fowler]] and Nicholas A. Christakis|url=http://jhfowler.ucsd.edu/dynamic_spread_of_happiness.pdf |journal=British Medical Journal |volume=338 |issue=768  |date=3 January 2009|doi=10.1136/bmj.a2338|format=PDF|pages=a2338}}</ref>  Researchers followed nearly 5000 individuals for 20 years in the long-standing [[Framingham Heart Study]] and found clusters of happiness and unhappiness that spread up to 3 degrees of separation on average.  Happiness tended to spread through close relationships like friends, siblings, spouses, and next-door neighbors, and the researchers reported that happiness spread more consistently than unhappiness through the network.  Moreover, the structure of the social network appeared to have an impact on happiness, as people who were very central (with many friends, and friends of friends) were significantly more likely to be happy than those on the periphery of the network.  Overall, the results suggest that happiness can spread through a population like a virus.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2008/12/05/health/05happy-web.html|title=Strangers May Cheer You Up, Study Says  |publisher=New York Times|date=December 5, 2008 | first=Pam | last=Belluck |accessdate=2010-04-10}}</ref><ref>Rob Stein,[http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/12/04/AR2008120403537.html"Happiness Can Spread Among People Like a Contagion, Study Indicates,"] ''[[The Washington Post]]'', December 5, 2008, Page A08</ref>	+
−		+
−	==Theory==	+
−	===Broad theories===	+
−	Some researchers<ref name="Seligman2002">{{cite book|last=Seligman|first=Martin E.P.|title=Authentic Happiness: Using the New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Lasting Fulfillment.|publisher=Simon and Schuster|location=New York|year=2002|page=275|isbn=0-7432-2297-0}}</ref> in this field posit that positive psychology can be delineated into three overlapping areas of research:	+
−		+
−	# Research into the '''Pleasant Life''', or the "life of enjoyment", examines how people optimally experience, [[Affective forecasting|forecast]], and savor the positive feelings and emotions that are part of normal and healthy living (e.g. relationships, hobbies, interests, entertainment, etc.). Martin Seligman says that this most transient element of happiness may be the least important, despite the attention it is given.<ref name=NYSciHap/>	+
−	# The study of the '''Good Life''', or the "life of engagement", investigates the beneficial effects of immersion, absorption, and ''[[flow (psychology)|flow]]'' that individuals feel when optimally engaged with their primary activities. These states are experienced when there is a positive match between a person's strength and the task they are doing, i.e. when they feel confident that they can accomplish the tasks they face. (See related concepts, [[Self-efficacy]] and [[play (activity)|play]])	+
−	# Inquiry into the '''Meaningful Life''', or "life of affiliation", questions how individuals derive a positive sense of well-being, belonging, meaning, and purpose from being part of and contributing back to something larger and more permanent than themselves (e.g. [[biophilia|nature]], social groups, organizations, movements, traditions, belief systems).	+
−	These categories appear to be neither widely disputed nor adopted by researchers across the 12 years that this academic area has been in existence. Martin Seligman originally proposed these 3 categories, but has since suggested that the last category, "meaningful life", be considered as 3 different categories. The resulting acronym is PERMA (Positive Emotions, Engagement, Relationships, Meaning and purpose, and Accomplishments).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.edge.org/q2011/q11_2.html |title=THE WORLD QUESTION CENTER 2011— Page 2 |publisher=Edge.org |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	[[File:Slavyansky-Family portrait.jpg|thumb|A portrait commemorating a family's day together]]	+
−	Professor [[Philip Zimbardo]] suggests we might also analyze happiness from a "Time Perspective". Zimbardo suggests sorting people's focus in life by valence (positive or negative) but also by their time perspective (past, present, or future orientation). Doing so may reveal some conflicts between individuals to be conflicts, not over whether an activity is enjoyed, but whether one prefers to risk delaying gratification further. Zimbardo also believes that research reveals an optimal balance of perspectives for a happy life; he says our focus on reliving positive aspects of our past should be high, followed by time spent believing in a positive future, and finally spending a moderate (but not excessive) amount of time enjoying the present.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/philip_zimbardo_prescribes_a_healthy_take_on_time.html |title=Philip Zimbardo prescribes a healthy take on time &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	The [[broaden-and-build]] theory of positive emotions suggests that positive emotions (e.g. [[happiness]], [[Interest (emotion)|interest]], [[Anticipation (emotion)|anticipation]])<ref name="IPP2">{{cite book|last=Compton|first=William C,|title=An Introduction to Positive Psychology|publisher=[[Wadsworth Publishing]]|year=2005|pages=23–40|chapter=2|isbn=0-534-64453-8}}</ref> broaden one's awareness and encourage novel, varied, and exploratory thoughts and actions. Over time, this broadened behavioral repertoire builds skills and resources. For example, curiosity about a landscape becomes valuable navigational knowledge; pleasant interactions with a stranger become a supportive friendship; aimless physical play becomes exercise and physical excellence.	+
−		+
−	This is in contrast to negative emotions, which prompt narrow survival-oriented behaviors. For example, the negative emotion of [[anxiety]] leads to the specific [[fight-or-flight response]] for immediate survival.<ref name="IPP2"/>	+
−		+
−	Below, research is sorted according to which of Seligman's categories it may be most (but not strictly) related (i.e. the "pleasant", "good", or "meaningful" life). Since these are still [[fuzzy concept|fuzzy classifications]], research mentioned in one section may be quite relevant in another.	+
−		+
−	===The pleasant life===	+
−	[[File:Flock of Seagulls (eschipul).jpg|thumb|Simple exercise, such as running, is cited as key to feeling happy.<ref name=Fox>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,197466,00.html Best Benefit of Exercise? Happiness], Robin Loyd, [[Fox News]], May 30, 2006.</ref>]]	+
−		+
−	[[Abraham Maslow]] proposed a [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs|hierarchy of needs]] in which more primitive desires must be met (basic physiological, sense of safety) before social needs can be met (e.g. intimacy), and certainly before one can effectively pursue more conceptual needs (e.g. morality).	+
−		+
−	There is evidence suggesting that negative emotions can be damaging. In an article titled "The undoing effect of positive emotions", [[Barbara Fredrickson]] et al. hypothesize that positive emotions undo the cardiovascular effects of negative emotions. When people experience [[Stress (medicine)|stress]], they show increased [[heart rate]], higher [[blood sugar]], [[immune suppression]], and other adaptations optimized for immediate action. If individuals do not regulate these changes once the stress is past, they can lead to illness, [[coronary heart disease]], and heightened mortality. Both lab research and survey research indicate that positive emotions help people who were previously under stress relax back to their physiological baseline.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unc.edu/peplab/publications/undo_2000.pdf |title=Fredrickson, B. L., Mancuso, R. A., Branigan, C., & Tugade, M. M. (2000). "The undoing effect of positive emotions", '&#39;Motivation and Emotion'&#39;. 24, 237-258. |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> Other research shows that improved mood is one of the various benefits of physical exercise.<ref name="Fox"/>	+
−		+
−	===The good life===	+
−	[[Self-efficacy]] is one's belief in one's ability to accomplish a task by one's own efforts. Low self-efficacy is associated with [[Depression (mood)|depression]]; high self-efficacy can help one overcome abuse, overcome eating disorders, and maintain a healthy lifestyle. High self-efficacy also improves the [[immune system]], aids in stress management, and decreases pain.<ref>Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a Unifying Theory of Behavioral Change. Psychological Review 84, 2, 191-215.</ref>	+
−	A related but somewhat differing concept is [[Personal effectiveness]] which is primarily concerned with the methodologies of planning and implementation of accomplishment.	+
−		+
−	====Flow====	+
−	[[Flow (psychology)|Flow]], or a state of absorption in one's work, is characterized by intense concentration, loss of self-awareness, a feeling of being perfectly challenged (neither bored nor overwhelmed), and a sense that "time is flying." Flow is an intrinsically rewarding experience, and it can also help one achieve a goal (e.g. winning a game) or improve skills (e.g. becoming a better chess player).<ref>Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990), Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience, New York: Harper and Row.</ref> Being challenged means flow is, of course, temporarily exciting and stressful, but this [[Eustress]] is not harmful because it is not [[chronic stress]].	+
−		+
−	Czikszentmihalyi identifies nine elements of flow:	+
−	1. There are clear goals every step of the way, 2. There is immediate feedback to one's action, 3. There is a balance between challenges and skills, 4. Action and awareness are merged, 5. Distractions are excluded from consciousness, 6. There is no worry of failure, 7. Self-consciousness disappears, 8. The sense of time becomes distorted, 9. The activity becomes "autotelic" (an end in itself, done for its own sake) <ref name="In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow">{{cite web |title="In the zone": enjoyment, creativity, and the nine elements of "flow" |publisher=MeaningandHappiness.com|url=http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/zone-enjoyment-creativity-elements-flow/26/|accessdate=2010-11-11}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	====Mindfulness====	+
−	[[Mindfulness (psychology)|Mindfulness]], may be defined as the intentionally-focused awareness of one's immediate experience.  The experience is one of a moment-by-moment attention to thoughts, emotions, physical sensations, and surroundings. To practice mindfulness is to become grounded in the present moment; one's role is simply as observer of the arising and passing away of experience. One does not judge the experiences and thoughts, nor do they try to 'figure things out' and draw conclusions, or change anything - the challenge during mindfulness is to simply observe.<ref>Goldstein, J. (2003) Insight Meditation: The Practice of Freedom, Shambala, 2003</ref><ref>Gunaratana, H. (1992), Mindfulness in Plain English, Wisdom Publications, 1992. "It should be noted that mindfulness is not an evolving term.  It has a very distinct meaning that has remained the same since it was introduced over 2500 years ago. The practice is  challenging and requires determination and dedication, particularly when one is starting out. As time passes, the practice becomes more natural.''</ref> Benefits of mindfulness practice include reduction of stress, anxiety, depression, and chronic pain.<ref>Brown, K. W., Ryan, R. M., & Creswell, J. D. (2007). Mindfulness: Theoretical foundations and evidence for its salutary effects. Psychological Inquiry, 18, 211-237.</ref>	+
−		+
−	Advocates of focusing on present experiences also mention research by Psychologist [[Daniel Gilbert (psychologist)|Daniel Gilbert]], who suggests that daydreaming, instead of focusing on the present, may impede happiness.	+
−	<ref>{{cite web	+
−	| title=A Wandering Mind Is an Unhappy Mind	+
−	| first = Matthew A.	+
−	| last = Killingsworth	+
−	| first = Daniel T.	+
−	| last = Gilbert	+
−	| publisher = [[Science (magazine)|Science]]	+
−	| date = 2010-11-12|url=http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/abstract/sci;330/6006/932?maxtoshow=&hits=10&RESULTFORMAT=&fulltext=Killingsworth&searchid=1&FIRSTINDEX=0&resourcetype=HWCIT|accessdate=2010-11-16}}</ref>	+
−	<ref>{{cite news	+
−	| title=When the Mind Wanders, Happiness Also Strays	+
−	| first = John	+
−	| last = Tierney	+
−	| publisher = The New York Times	+
−	| date = 2010-11-15|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/16/science/16tier.html?_r=1&hp|accessdate=2010-11-16}}</ref> Other psychologists (see Zimbardo's "Time Perspectives" above) say that it is still important to spend time recalling past positive experiences, and building positive expectations for the future.	+
−		+
−	===The meaningful life===	+
−	After several years of researching [[disgust]], [[University of Virginia]] professor [[Jonathan Haidt]] and others studied its opposite, and the term "[[Elevation (psychology)|elevation]]" was coined.  Elevation is a moral emotion and is pleasant. It involves a desire to act morally and do "good"; as an emotion it has a basis in biology, and can sometimes be characterized by a feeling of expansion in the chest or a tingling feeling on the skin.	+
−		+
−	====Optimism and helplessness====	+
−	[[File:Fluorescent Lamp.jpg|thumb|left|There is reason to focus on one's immediate [[locus of control]], and to recognize that this behaviour - from everyone - would solve massive world issues]] [[Learned optimism]] is the idea that a talent for joy, like any other, can be cultivated. It is contrasted with [[learned helplessness]]. Learning optimism is done by consciously challenging [[Intrapersonal communication|self talk]] if it describes a negative event as a personal failure that permanently affects all areas of the person's life. Reports of happiness have also been correlated with the general ability to "rationalize or explain" social and economic inequalities.<ref>{{cite web	+
−	| title=Conservatives Happier Than Liberals	+
−	| first = Jeanna	+
−	| last = Bryner |work=LiveScience.com|url=http://www.livescience.com/health/080507-liberal-conservative.html|accessdate=2008-06-18}}</ref>	+
−	[[Hope]] is a learned style of goal-directed thinking in which the person utilizes both ''pathways thinking'' (the perceived capacity to find routes to desired goals) and ''agency thinking'' (the requisite motivations to use those routes).<ref>Snyder, C. R. (Ed.). (2000). Handbook of hope: Theory, measures, and applications. San Diego, CA: Academic Press.</ref>	+
−		+
−	Author and journalist [[J.B. MacKinnon]] provides a cognitive tool for avoiding helplessness (e.g. paralysis in the face of earth's many problems) in the form of what he calls "Vertical Agitation". The concept comes from research on denial by sociologist [[Stanley Cohen]]. Cohen explains that, in the face of massive problems, people tend towards learned helplessness rather confronting the [[Cognitive dissonance|dissonant]] facts of the matter. Vertical Agitation, according to MacKinnon, means focusing on only one portion of the problem at a time, and holding oneself accountable for the solving of that problem - all the way to the highest level of government, business and society (e.g. advocating strongly for one thing: [[Compact fluorescent lamp|eco-friendly lightbulbs]]). This allows each individual in society to make the vital "trivial" (read:small) changes, without being intimidated by the work that needs to be done as a whole. Mackinnon adds that this will also keep individuals from getting too 'holier than thou' (harassing friends and family about ''every'' possible improvement).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.utne.com/environment/Eco-Uncertainty-JB-MacKinnon-Explore.aspx |title=In an Age of Eco-Uncertainty: Vertical Agitation, Eco-Douchebags, Cohen' s Rule, and Lifestyle as Social Change |publisher=Utne.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	====Good work====	+
−	As mentioned above, having more money does not reliably cause more happiness. Psychologist [[Howard Gardner]] has done more extensive research on what it takes to do good work at one's job. He says young generations (particularly in the United States) have been taught to focus on selfish pursuit of money for its own sake. Gardner's alternatives loosely follow the pleasant/good/meaningful life classifications; he believes young people should be trained to pursue excellence in their field, as well as engagement (see flow, above) in accordance with their moral belief systems.<ref>Howard Gardner, TVOpodcast ''Excellence in education'',http://www.tvo.org/TVOsites/WebObjects/TvoMicrosite.woa?bi?1260050400000</ref>	+
−		+
−	====Strengths and virtues====	+
−	[[File:Dalai Lama and Seattle Mayor Norm Rice, 1993.jpg|thumb|right|The Buddhist saying that "Life is Suffering", according to Jordan Peterson, refers to the fact that nature can be harsh and indifferent, which highlights the importance of cultivating virtues]]	+
−	Research and clinical psychologist [[Jordan Peterson]] argues that it is natural (but of course not ''good'') for human beings to suffer a great deal. He says this is because living beings are limited and restrained in many important ways. For this reason, Peterson adopts a Buddhist saying that "Life is suffering". He does not think this view is pessimistic, and asserts that accepting the universe's harsh indifference towards living things can free one from the expectation that they should always be happy. This realization can ultimately help one overcome suffering, which is no longer unexpected. This also means that individuals should be all the more delighted when they flourish, when others flourish, or when they build a society where flourishing is anywhere near the norm at all. To Peterson, virtues are important because they give people the tools to escape suffering (e.g. the strength to admit [[cognitive dissonance|dissonant]] truths to themselves). Peterson thus believes that suffering is sometimes caused by a false philosophy (one that denies how natural suffering is), and sometimes by a lack of strong virtues - on our part or on the part of people that affect us.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tvo.org/TVO/WebObjects/TVO.woa?videoid%3F713852509001 |title=TVO.ORG &#124; Video &#124; TVO - Jordan Peterson on The Necessity of Virtue |publisher=TVO |date=2011-01-14 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	The development of the [[Character Strengths and Virtues (book)|Character Strengths and Virtues]] (CSV) handbook represents the first attempt on the part of the research community to identify and classify the positive psychological traits of human beings. Much like the ''[[Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders]]'' (DSM) of general psychology, the CSV provides a theoretical framework to assist in understanding strengths and virtues and for developing practical applications for positive psychology. This manual identifies six classes of [[virtue]] (i.e., "core virtues"), made up of twenty-four measurable character strengths.<ref name="CSV">{{cite book	+
−	|last=Peterson	+
−	|first=Christopher	+
−	|authorlink=	+
−	|coauthors=[[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]]	+
−	|title=Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification	+
−	|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]	+
−	|year=2004	+
−	|location=Oxford	+
−	|isbn=0-19-516701-5}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	The introduction of [[Character Strengths and Virtues (book)|CSV]] suggests that these six virtues are considered good by the vast majority of cultures and throughout history and that these traits lead to increased happiness when practiced. Notwithstanding numerous cautions and caveats, this suggestion of universality hints that in addition to trying to broaden the scope of psychological research to include mental wellness, the leaders of the positive psychology movement are challenging [[moral relativism]] and suggesting that we are "evolutionarily predisposed" toward certain virtues, that virtue has a biological basis.<ref>[[Christopher Peterson|Peterson, Christopher]] & [[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin E.P.]] (2004). ''Character strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 51. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.</ref>	+
−		+
−	[[File:Jim-Carrey-2008.jpg|thumb|[[Comedians]] are considered masters of [[humor]].]]The organization of these virtues and strengths is as follows:	+
−	# '''Wisdom and Knowledge:''' [[creativity]], [[curiosity]], open-mindedness, [[love of learning]], [[wisdom|perspective]], [[innovation]]	+
−	# '''Courage:''' [[bravery]], persistence, [[integrity]], [[vitality]]	+
−	# '''Humanity:''' [[love]], [[kindness]], [[social intelligence]]	+
−	# '''Justice:''' [[active citizenship|citizenship]], fairness, [[leadership]]	+
−	# '''Temperance:''' [[forgiveness]] and [[mercy]], [[humility]], [[prudence]], [[self-control|self control]]	+
−	# '''Transcendence:''' [[appreciation of beauty]] and [[excellence]], [[gratitude]], [[hope]], [[humor]], [[spirituality]]	+
−		+
−	It should be noted that the organization of these virtues into 6 groups is contested. It has been suggested that the 24 strengths identified are more accurately grouped into just 3 or 4 categories: Intellectual Strengths, Interpersonal Strengths, and Temperance Strengths <ref>Jessica Shryack a,*, Michael F. Steger b, Robert F. Krueger c, Christopher S. Kallie d (2010). The structure of virtue: An empirical investigation of the dimensionality of the virtues in action inventory of strengths.</ref> or alternatively Interpersonal Strengths, Fortitude, Vitality, and Cautiousness <ref>Brdr, I. & Kashdan, T.B. (2010). Character strengths and well-being in Croatia: An empirical investigation of structure and correlates. Journal of Research in Personality, 44,  151-154.</ref>	+
−	These general traits, and even their classifications, have emerged independently elsewhere in literature on values. Some examples have been described by Paul Thagard, including Jeff Shrager's workshops that attempt to discover the habits of highly creative people.<ref>Thagard, P. (2005). How to be a successful scientist. In M. E. Gorman, R. D. Tweney, D. C. Gooding & A. P.	+
−	Kincannon (Eds.), Scientific and technological thinking (pp. 159- 171). Mawah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum	+
−	Associates.</ref>	+
−		+
−	==Benefits in education== <!-- I don't object to the addition of this study, but it is not appropriately concise, and should accordingly be drastically cut down. -->	+
−	Positive psychology is beneficial to schools and students as it encourages individuals to strive to do the best they can whereas scolding has the opposite effect.  Clifton and Rath <ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51">Clifton, D, Rath, T 2005, ‘Every moment matters’, How full is your bucket? Positive strategies for work and life, Gallup Press, New York, pp. 47-51</ref> discuss the research conducted by Dr. Elizabeth Hurlock in 1925. She designed a study around fourth to sixth grade students to see the effect praise, criticism and ignorance of the students work could have on them. The outcome was determined by how many math problems the children solved after 2, 3, 4, and 5 days. Children who scored a high mark in a maths test were named and praised in front of the class. Those who did poorly were openly scolded in front of the class and those who did very poorly were completely ignored after watching the other students being scolded and praised. A control group was taken to a different room and sat the same test but were given no feedback on their work. Students who were praised or criticised had a higher score on the second day. On the third and fourth day, the students who were criticised were equal with the students who were ignored. The students who were praised continued to excel in their work to the end of the study. The overall improvement was that the praised students improved by 71%, the students who were criticised increased their performance by 19% and those who were ignored increased by 5%. This study shows the importance of embracing positive psychology in schools. Ignoring or criticising students can hinder their education. Positive emotions enable individuals to learn and work to the best of their ability.	+
−		+
−	According to Clifton and Rath <ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51"/> ninety nine out of one hundred people would prefer to be around positive people.  The individuals believe that they work more productively when they are around positive people.  Positive emotions are contagious so having a teacher or student who is positive can help the other students to be positive and work to the best of their abilities.  If there is one negative person, it can ruin the entire positive vibe in an environment.  Clifton and Rath <ref name="Clifton, D 2005, pp. 47-51"/> believe that ‘positive emotions are an essential daily requirement for survival’.	+
−		+
−	==Application==	+
−	<!-- Please divide into sub-sections! -->	+
−		+
−	Practical applications of positive psychology include helping individuals and organizations identify their strengths and use them to increase and sustain their respective levels of well-being. Therapists, counselors, coaches, and various psychological professionals, as well as HR departments, business strategists, and others are using these new methods and techniques to broaden and build upon the strengths of individuals who are not necessarily suffering from mental illness or disorder. <!-- The phrase "broaden and build" is a reference to the prominent positive psychology theory of Barbara Fredrickson, so this phrase should be kept intact rather than reversed. -->	+
−		+
−	Researcher Dianne Hales described a person as ''emotionally healthy'' as someone who exhibited flexibility and adaptability to different circumstances, had a sense of meaning and affirmation in life as well as an "understanding that the self is not the center of the universe", had compassion and the ability to be unselfish, along with increased depth and satisfaction in intimate relationships, and who had a sense of control over the mind and body.<ref name=twsMay18>{{cite news	+
−	|author= Dianne Hales	+
−	|title= An Invitation to Health, Brief: Psychological Well-Being 2010-2011 Edition	+
−	|publisher= Wadsworth Cengage Learning	+
−	|quote= see page 26	+
−	|year= 2010	+
−	|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=oP91HVIMPRIC&pg=PA26&lpg=PA26&dq=%22democracy%22+%22mentally+healthy+person%22+description&source=bl&ots=ws3VY1Q_8u&sig=Y0eVG5AZQWzV6EyTM85fnh0Hb-A&hl=en&ei=ehHzS_fiFYG-9QTB3cxa&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=10&ved=0CEEQ6AEwCQ#v=onepage&q&f=false	+
−	|accessdate= 2010-05-18	+
−	}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Proponents of replacing [[Gross domestic product]] with [[Gross national happiness]] as the predominant measure of a nation's success often cite positive psychology research.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ted.com/talks/chip_conley_measuring_what_makes_life_worthwhile.html |title=Chip Conley: Measuring what makes life worthwhile &#124; Video on |publisher=Ted.com |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	===In education===	+
−	In 2008 a whole-of-school implementation of Positive Psychology was undertaken by Geelong Grammar School (Victoria, Australia) in conjunction with the Positive Psychology Center at the University of Pennsylvania. This involved initial training of teaching staff in the principles and skills of positive psychology. Ongoing support was provided by The Positive Psychology Center staff remaining in-residence for the entire year (Seligman et al. 2008).<ref>Seligman, M, Ernst, R, Gillham J, Reivich, K & Links M 2009, ‘Positive education: positive psychology and classroom interventions’, Oxford Review of Education, vol. 35, no. 3, pp 293-311, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete database.</ref>	+
−		+
−	Staats, Hupp and Hagley (2008) have used positive psychology to explore academic honesty, by identifying positive traits that were displayed by heroes and then determining if the presence of these traits in students could be used to predict their future intent to cheat. Their research has resulted in ‘an effective working model of heroism in the context of the academic environment’ (Staats, Hupp & Hagley, 2008).<ref>Staats, S, Hupp J, Hagley M 2008, ‘Honesty and heroes: a positive psychology view of heroism and academic honesty’, Journal of Psychology, vol. 142, no. 4, pp 357-72, retrieved 28 April 2010, Expanded Academic ASAP database</ref>	+
−		+
−	===Applications to Clinical Psychology===	+
−	A strengths-based approach aims to change clinical psychology to have an equally weighted focus on both positive and negative functioning when attempting to understand and treat distress.<ref>Duckworth, A.L., Steen, T.A., & Seligman, M.E.P. (2005). Positive psychology in clinical practice. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 1, 629-651.</ref> The rationale is based on several empirical findings. Positive characteristics interact with negative life events to predict disorder (so studying only negative life events would produce misleading results).<ref>Cohen, L. H., J. McGowan, S. Fooskas, and S. Rose. 1984. "Positive Life Events	+
−	and Social Support and the Relationship Between Life Stress and Psychological	+
−	Disorder." AmericanJournal ofCommunity Psychology 12 (5): 567-87.</ref> Interventions that focus on strengths and positive emotions can be as effective in treating disorder as other more commonly used approaches such as cognitive behavioral therapy.<ref>Seligman, M. E P, Steen, T., Park, N., & Peterson, C. (2005). Positive psychology progress: Empirical validation of interventions. American Psychologist, 60(5), 410-421.</ref> The terms positive clinical psychology and other terms are a bit odd as this field has always had scientists and clinicians that address quality of life outcomes. While positive psychology can inform clinical psychology, it is not helpful to stretch beyond this point. This is about changing priorities to address the breadth and depth of the human experience in clinical settings.	+
−		+
−	===In the workplace===	+
−	Positive psychology has also been implemented in business management practice, but Wong & Davey (2007)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.regent.edu/acad/global/publications/sl_proceedings/2007/wong-davey.pdf |title=Wong & Davey (2007) |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> acknowledges that although managers can introduce this concept to a workplace, they don't always have the ability to apply it to employees in a positive way.  Furthermore, if positive psychology must be applied to an organisation with transparency if it is to be welcomed and committed to by employees.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com.au/books?id=JR51T4KHf3AC&pg=PA327&lpg=PA327&dq=in+business+management+%22Positive+psychology+%22+-science&source=bl&ots=ZpNSaa_g-G&sig=6QEDEIB1OKIU_SanJf5wujxCsOg&hl=en&ei=WSPtS-WVAo_WsQP9vd3kDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwADgU#v=onepage&q=in%20business%20management%20%22Positive%20psychology%20%22%20-science&f=false |title=Harrington S, Linley A & Page N. 2010 |publisher=Books.google.com.au |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>  Managers must also understand that the sheer implementation of positive psychology will not combat any commitment challenges they may face. However, it may help employees to be more optimistic to new concepts or management practices.	+
−		+
−	In their article [http://www.apa.org/pubs/journals/releases/bul-1316803.pdf The Benefits of Frequent Positive Affect: Does Happiness Lead to Success?], S. Lyubomirsky et al. say: "The cross-sectional evidence reveals that happy workers enjoy multiple advantages over their less happy peers. Individuals high in subjective well-being are more likely to secure job interviews, to be evaluated more positively by supervisors once they obtain a job, to show superior performance and productivity, and to handle managerial jobs better. They are also less likely to show counter-productive workplace behavior and job burnout."	+
−		+
−	Positive psychology, when applied correctly can provide employees with a greater opportunity to use skills and vary work duties.  However, It is important to remember that changing work conditions and roles can lead to stress amongst employees if they are not properly supported by management in their venture.  This particularly holds true for employees who must meet the expectations of organisations with unrealistic goals and targets.<ref>Snyder, C & Lopez, J. 2002, Handbook of Positive Psychology, Oxford University Press [http://www.deakin.eblib.com.au.ezproxy-f.deakin.edu.au/patron/FullRecord.aspx?p=271581&userid=WEAuOX57P1tMHeNgDQM4dA%3d%3d&tstamp=1273278299&id=9E207671A9591844A5DE424F74A348322954B1F4]</ref>	+
−		+
−	So how does an organization implement change? Lewis et al. (2007) have development [[Appreciative inquiry]] (AI) which is an integrated, organizational-level methodology for approaching [[organizational development]], based on an understanding of how organizational resourcefulness is generated through accessing many human psychological processes, such as positive emotional states, imagination, social cohesion and the social construction of reality.<ref>Lewis, S, Passmore, J & Cantore, S 2008, ‘Positive psychology and managing change’, Psychologist, vol. 21, no. 11, pp. 934, retrieved 28 April 2010, Academic Search Complete</ref>	+
−		+
−	=== In offender rehabilitation ===	+
−	Traditionally, working with offenders has focused on their deficits (with respect to socialization, schooling etc.) and other "criminogenic" risk-factors. Rehabilitation more often than not takes the form of forced treatment or training for the good of the community.  The experience with this approach has not been very rewarding. Positive psychology has made some inroads recently with the advent of the "Good Lives Model", developed by Tony Ward, Shadd Maruna and others with respect to rehabilitation: "Individuals take part ... because they think that such activities might either improve the quality of their life (an intrinsic goal) or at least look good to judges, parole boards and family members (an extrinsic goal)."<ref>Tony Ward/Shadd Maruna, Rehabilitation. London, New York: Routledge 2007, p. 120)</ref>	+
−		+
−	===Other future research===	+
−	Positive psychology research and practice is also currently being conducted and developed in various countries throughout the world. In Canada, for example, Charles Hackney of Briercrest College applies positive psychology to the topic of personal growth through martial arts training, and Paul Wong, president of the International Network on Personal Meaning,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://meaning.ca/ |title=International Network on Personal Meaning and Meaning of Life |publisher=Meaning.ca |date=1999-03-15 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> is developing an existential approach to positive psychology. <!-- Mention MAPP program in England, school based on positive psychology in Australia, etc.-->	+
−		+
−	An ‘intense affect’ can certainly be considered with cognitive and behavioral change, which is more slight and complex and is becoming a legitimate area of study, specifically with the links in cognition and motivational responses.	+
−	For researchers to make further progress there is a need for past theories and methods to be overcome and to encourage the more contemporary research, says Isen (2009).<ref>Isen, A.M, 2009, "Positive Affect as a Source of Human Strength", In C. R. Snyder & S.J. Lopez (eds.), Handbook of positive psychology, pp 179-195, New York: Oxford University Press, retrieved fromhttp://www.ebscohost.com/, April, 2010.</ref>	+
−	Chang (2008) believes emotional intelligence is not definitive to positive affect and researchers have a number of paths that allow the enhancement of emotional intelligence; however more study is required to track the gradient of positive affect in psychology.<ref>Chang, Kelly B. T, 2008, ‘Can We Improve Emotional Intelligence’, Emotional Intelligence; Perspectives on Educational and Positive Psychology, Peter Lang Publishing Inc., New York, pg 25-45</ref>	+
−		+
−	===Academic Programs that Teach Positive Psychology===	+
−	The University of Pennysylvania's Positive Psychology Center has developed a masters degree program in positive psychology (MAPP) which is described which they designate "the world's first degree program in positive psychology".<ref name="upenn1">{{cite web|url=http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/mappdirectors.htm |title=Positive Psychology |publisher=Ppc.sas.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> This relatively new degree program is under the direction of The Center for Applied Psychology's "senior scholar," James Pawelski, Ph.D. In addition to his work as administrator of the program, Pawelski also teaches courses on "positive intervention" in the program.<ref name="upenn1"/> In a lecture presented at the John C. Dalton Institute of College Student values, Pawelski describes the degree as consisting of monthly intensives coupled with online course work <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I_M_Z6VagCk |title=James Pawelski Part I 2009 |publisher=YouTube |date=2010-01-25 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref> which can be "pursued without interupting your career."  The degree "explores the history, theory, and basic research methods of positive psychology", "focuses on such issues as the empirical study of positive emotions, strengths-based character, and healthy institutions", and mentors the student in using "these aspects of positive psychology in" their "particular professional setting." <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sas.upenn.edu/lps/graduate/mapp/ |title=Master of Applied Positive Psychology (MAPP) Program &#124; Penn LPS |publisher=Sas.upenn.edu |date= |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	Another academic program that focuses on training students in Positive Psychology and features both an M.A. and Ph.D. tracts, is offered at the Claremont Graduate University's School of Behavioral and Organizational Sciences and is affiliated with the school's Quality of Life Research Center.  This program "aim[s] to provide excellent graduate education and to facilitate the production of practical knowledge" and emphasizes "sampling methods as well as more traditional experimental and quasi-experimental designs, surveys, and interviews, our faculty and students focus their research on life-long processes and outcomes of behavior as they affect the quality of life".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cgu.edu/pages/4571.asp |title=Positive Psychology at Claremont Graduate University |publisher=Cgu.edu |date=2006-11-30 |accessdate=2011-02-07}}</ref>	+
−		+
−	A course on positive psychology is also offered in the newly established [[Indian Institute of Technology Hyderabad]](IITH).Currently,this course is available as an elective to the second and third year B.Tech students.	+
−		+
−	==Criticism==	+
−		+
−	Sample (2003) notes that it is argued by Steven Wolin, a clinical psychiatrist at [[George Washington University]] in Washington DC, that the study of positive psychology is a reiteration of older ways of thinking in positive psychology.	+
−		+
−	The uptake of positive psychology by the popular press, primarily promoting among other claims the health benefits of positive psychology. Snyder and Lopez (cited in Held 2004, p.&nbsp;17) warn of possible damage to the field of positive psychology through the scientific community becoming caught up in the media’s claims of positive psychology. Warning researchers of the field, Snyder and Lopez suggest that they remain within the parameters of scientific professionalism and utilise any research or studies appropriately.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41">Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp. 9-41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.</ref>	+
−		+
−	Some negative attributes of positive psychology as described by Held (2004) include the movement’s lack of consistency towards the aspect of negativity. She raised issues with the simplistic approach taken by some psychologists in the application of positive psychology. A ‘one size fits all’ approach is not seen by Held to be beneficial to the advancement of the field of positive psychology, and she suggested a need for individual differences to be incorporated into its application.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41"/>	+
−		+
−	Held (2004) argued that while positive psychology makes contributions to the field of [[psychology]], that it is not without its faults. Her 2004 article in the Journal of [[Humanistic Psychology]], vol.44, no.1. offered insight into topics including the negative side effects of positive psychology, the negativity that can be found within the positive psychology movement and the current division inside the field of psychology caused by the differing opinions held by psychologists on positive psychology.<ref name="Held 2004, pp. 9-41"/>	+
−		+
−	==See also==	+
−		+
−	* [[Happiness]]	+
−	* [[Emotional intelligence]]	+
−	* [[Eudaimonia]]	+
−	* [[Gross national happiness]]	+
−	* [[Happiness economics]]	+
−	* [[Meaning of life]]	+
−	* [[Psychological resilience]]	+
−	* [[Theory of humor]]	+
−		+
−	===Precursors to positive psychology===	+
−	* [[Humanistic psychology]]	+
−	* [[Maslow's hierarchy of needs]]	+
−	* Needs and Motives [[Henry Murray]]	+
−		+
−	==Notes==	+
−	{{reflist|30em}}	+
−		+
−	==References==	+
−		+
−	* [[Michael Argyle (psychologist)|Argyle, Michael]] (2001). ''The Psychology of Happiness''. Routledge.	+
−	* Benard, Bonnie (2004). ''Resiliency: What We Have Learned''. San Francisco: WestEd	+
−	* [[Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi|Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly]]  (1990). ''Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience''. HarperCollins Publishers.	+
−	* [[Jonathan Haidt|Haidt, Jonathan]] (2005). ''[[The Happiness Hypothesis]]''. Basic Books.	+
−	* Haidt, J. (2003). [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/haidt.elevation-and-positive-psychology.manuscript.html Elevation and the positive psychology of morality]. In C. L. M. Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived''. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp.&nbsp;275–289).	+
−	* [[Daniel Kahneman|Kahneman, Daniel]], Diener, Ed, Schwarz, Norbert (2003). ''Well-Being: The Foundations of Hedonic Psychology''. Russell Sage Foundation Publications.	+
−	* Kashdan, T.B. (2009). [http://www.harpercollins.com/books/9780061661181/Curious/index.aspx?AA=index_authorIntro_34286 ''Curious? Discover the Missing Ingredient to a Fulfilling Life''.] New York, NY: HarperCollins.	+
−	* Keyes & J. Haidt (Eds.) ''Flourishing: Positive Psychology and the Life Well-lived''. Washington DC: American Psychological Association. (pp.&nbsp;275–289).	+
−	* McMahon, Darrin M. (2006). ''Happiness: A History''. Atlantic Monthly Press.	+
−	* Robbins, B.D (2008). [http://mythosandlogos.com/Goodlife.pdf What is the good life? Positive psychology and the renaissance of humanistic psychology]. ''The Humanistic Psychologist'', 36(2), 96-112.	+
−	* Sample, I 2003, ''How to be happy'', The Guardian UK, 18 May 2010, http://www.guardian.co.uk/society/2003/nov/19/1	+
−	* [[Martin Seligman|Seligman, Martin]] (1990). ''Learned Optimism: How to Change Your Mind and Your Life''. Free Press.	+
−	* Seligman, M.E.P. (2004). ''Can Happiness be Taught?''. [[Daedalus (journal)|Daedalus journal]], Spring 2004.	+
−	* Snyder, C.R., and Lopez, Shane J. (2001) ''Handbook of Positive Psychology.'' Oxford University Press.	+
−	* Ward, Tony/Maruna, Shadd: Rehabilitation. Routledge 2007.	+
−	* Biswas-Diener, Robert, & Diener, Ed. (2004). The psychology of subjective well-being. Daedalus, (133)2, 18-25	+
−	* Held, BS 2004, ‘The Negative Side of Positive Psychology’, Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 44 No. 1, pp.&nbsp;9–41, retrieved 27 April 2010, PsycINFO database.	+
−		+
−	==Further reading==	+
−	* Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is positive psychology? ''[[Review of General Psychology]], 9,'' 103-110. [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/gable.haidt.what-is-positive-psychology.pdf Full text]	+
−	* [http://whyfiles.org/297human_needs/index.php?g=1.txt Economic Downturn: Can Money Buy Happiness?] WhyFiles.org	+
−	* Niemiec, R., & Wedding D. (2008). [http://www.hogrefe.com/program/positive-psychology-at-the-movies.html Positive Psychology at the Movies: Using Using Films to Build Virtues and Character Strengths.] Cambridge, MA: Hogrefe. http://www.hogrefe.com/program/positive-psychology-at-the-movies.html	+
−	* Eric Fromm, [http://www.worldcat.org/title/anatomy-of-human-destructiveness/oclc/677299&referer=brief_results ''The anatomy of human destructiveness''] (New York, Holt, Rinehart and Winston [1973]) ISBN 0030075963	+
−		+
−	==External links==	+
−	* [http://www.div17pospsych.com/ APA Division 17, Section on Positive Psychology] American Psychological Association Division 17, Society of Counseling Psychology, Section on Positive Psychology -  dedicated to the study and promotion of positive psychology.	+
−	* [http://www.psych.uiuc.edu/~ediener/ Ed Diener, Positive Psychology], University of Illinois site.	+
−	* [http://www.ppc.sas.upenn.edu/ Positive Psychology Center] at the [[University of Pennsylvania]]	+
−	* [http://www.cgu.edu/positivepsych/ Positive Psychology] at [[Claremont Graduate University]]	+
−	* [http://www.ted.com/index.php/talks/martin_seligman_on_the_state_of_psychology.html Martin Seligman presentation on positive psychology (Video)] at [[TED (conference)|TED conference]]	+
−	* [http://www.butler-bowdon.com/Martin-Seligman-Authentic-Happiness ''Authentic Happiness'': A commentary on Martin Seligman's book]	+
−	* [http://www.slate.com/id/2072079/entry/2072402 Debating Human Happiness] - a conversation between [[Martin Seligman]], [[Steven Pinker]], and [[Robert Wright (journalist)|Robert Wright]]	+
−	* [http://people.virginia.edu/~jdh6n/publications.html Publications on elevation and other subjects within positive psychology], such as [http://faculty.virginia.edu/haidtlab/articles/036.gable.haidt.2005.what-is-positive-psychology.pdf "What (and Why) Is Positive Psychology?" (pdf)]	+
−	* [http://www.meaningandhappiness.com/ Meaning and Happiness] - Research on meaning and happiness from the perspective of positive psychology	+
−	* [http://www.centreforconfidence.co.uk/pp/ Centre for Confidence] - Resources for positive psychology including information on Professor [[Carol Dweck|Carol Dweck's]] work on 'mindsets'	+
−	* [http://www.ippanetwork.org/ International Positive Psychology Association] - to promote the science and practice of positive psychology and to facilitate communication and collaboration among researchers and practitioners around the world who are interested in positive psychology	+
−	* [http://www.zonepositive.com/ Zone Positive] - Created to help people thrive in their personal and professional life using the tenets of positive psychology	+
−	* [http://www.amazon.com/course-happiness-authentic-well-being-flourishing/dp/1456374133/ A course in happiness] An authentic happiness formula for well-being, meaning and flourishing - ISBN: 9781456374136	+
−	{{Psychology}}	+
−	[[Outline of psychology]]	+
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−	{{DEFAULTSORT:Positive Psychology}}	+
−	[[Category:Positive psychology| ]]	+
−	[[Category:Branches of psychology]]	+
−	[[Category:Clinical psychology]]	+
−	[[Category:Psychological schools]]	+
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−	[[bg:Позитивна психология]]	+
−	[[de:Positive Psychologie]]	+
−	[[es:Psicología positiva]]	+
−	[[fr:Psychologie positive]]	+
−	[[id:Psikologi positif]]	+
−	[[is:Jákvæð sálfræði]]	+
−	[[it:Psicologia positiva]]	+
−	[[he:פסיכולוגיה חיובית]]	+
−	[[lt:Pozityvioji psichologija]]	+
−	[[hu:pozitív pszichológia]]	+
−	[[nl:Positieve psychologie]]	+
−	[[ja:ポジティブ心理学]]	+
−	[[pt:Psicologia positiva]]	+
−	[[ru:Позитивная психология]]	+
−	[[sl:Pozitivna psihologija]]	+
−	[[th:จิตวิทยาเชิงบวก]]	+
−	[[uk:Позитивна психологія]]	+
−	[[zh:正面心理学]]	+

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Latest revision as of 01:56, 22 June 2012

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