Music therapy

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Music therapy is an allied health profession and a field of scientific research which studies correlations between the process of clinical therapy and biomusicology, musical acoustics, music theory, psychoacoustics and comparative musicology. It is an interpersonal process in which a trained music therapist uses music and all of its facets—physical, emotional, mental, social, aesthetic, and spiritual—to help clients to improve or maintain their health. Music therapists primarily help clients improve their observable level of functioning and self-reported quality of life in various domains (e.g., cognitive functioning, motor skills, emotional and affective development, behavior and social skills) by using music experiences (e.g., singing, songwriting, listening to and discussing music, moving to music) to achieve measurable treatment goals and objectives. Referrals to music therapy services may be made by a treating physician or an interdisciplinary team consisting of clinicians such as physicians, psychologists, physical therapists, and occupational therapists.

Music therapists are found in nearly every area of the helping professions. Some commonly found practices include developmental work (communication, motor skills, etc.) with individuals with special needs, songwriting and listening in reminiscence/orientation work with the elderly, processing and relaxation work, and rhythmic entrainment for physical rehabilitation in stroke victims.

The Turco-Persian psychologist and music theorist al-Farabi (872–950), known as "Alpharabius" in Europe, dealt with music therapy in his treatise Meanings of the Intellect, where he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.[1] Robert Burton wrote in the 17th century in his classic work, The Anatomy of Melancholy, that music and dance were critical in treating mental illness, especially melancholia.[2][3][4]

Music therapy is considered one of the expressive therapies.

Forms

There are several concepts of thought regarding the foundations of music therapy, including philosophies based on education, psychology, neuroscience, and music therapy itself.

Different approaches from education are Orff-Schulwerk (Orff), Dalcroze Eurhythmics, and Kodaly. The two philosophies that developed directly out of music therapy are Nordoff-Robbins and the Bonny Method of Guided Imagery and Music.[5]

Music therapists may work with individuals who have behavioral-emotional disorders. To meet the needs of this population, music therapists have taken current psychological theories and used them as a basis for different types of music therapy. Different models include behavioral therapy, cognitive behavioral therapy, and psychodynamic therapy.[6]

The therapy model based on neuroscience is called "neurological music therapy" (NMT). NMT is "based on a neuroscience model of music perception and production, and the influence of music on functional changes in non-musical brain and behavior functions."[7] In other words, NMT studies how the brain is without music, how the brain is with music, measures the differences, and uses these differences to cause changes in the brain through music that will eventually affect the client non-musically. As one researcher, Dr. Thaut, said: "The brain that engages in music is changed by engaging in music."[8]

Music therapy for children

There are two approaches to music therapy for children: The therapy session can be one-on-one or in a group setting; both work very well, if used delicately.[9] When a therapist meets with a child for the first time, it is good for the therapist and the child to come up with goals for him or her to meet during the duration together.[10] Music therapy can help children with communication problems, attention, motivation, and behavioral problems.[11] The setup of the room where the session takes place is very important, in order to make the child feel comfortable and to allow the child to produce the music right. It should be a room dedicated for music. There should not be other distracting things in the room. The room needs to be well lit and the temperature of the room should be moderate; it should not be too hot or cold. It is important that the room offers easy access, in case they have a wheelchair or other appliance, and the chairs in the room should be comfortable but still up sit right so the child is not slouching.[12] When it comes to the instruments to use it is good to have a wide range of different instruments from different places. It’s good for them to be colorful, and to have different textures. The therapist should either play a piano or guitar to keep everything grounded and in rhythm. The most important thing, though, is to have high quality instruments and to keep them well taken care of. It is important to remember that some children will be able to handle an instrument while anothers cannot, so you have to give the child the right instrument for them.[13] All these elements help the experience and outcome of the music therapy go better and have more successes for the child. In fact according to Daniel Levitin, it started inside the womb, surrounded by amniotic fluid, the fetus hears sounds. It hears the mother’s heartbeat, at times speed up, at other times slow down, not only that but other music, conversations, and environmental noises. Alexandra Lamont of Keele University in the UK discovered the fetus hears music. She found that, a year after they are born, children recognize and prefer music they were exposed to in the womb. The auditory system of the fetus is fully functional about twenty weeks after conception.[14]

Usage by country

Australia

Key Australian body, AMTA, Australian Music Therapy Association, founded on 1975.

United States

Music therapy has existed in its common current form in the United States since around 1944, when the first undergraduate degree program in the world was founded at Michigan State University and the first graduate degree program at the University of Kansas. The American Music Therapy Association (AMTA) was founded in 1998 as a merger between the National Association for Music Therapy (NAMT, founded in 1950) and the American Association for Music Therapy (AAMT, founded in 1971). Numerous other national organizations exist, such as the Institute for Music and Neurologic Function, Nordoff-Robbins Center For Music Therapy, and The Bonny Foundation. A music therapist may use ideas or concepts from different disciplines such as speech/language, physical therapy, medicine, nursing, education, etc.

A music therapy degree candidate can earn an undergraduate, masters or doctoral degree in music therapy. Many AMTA approved programs offer equivalency and certificate degrees in music therapy for students that have completed a degree in a related field. Some practicing music therapists have held PhDs in non-music-therapy (but related) areas, but more recently Temple University and Lesley University have founded a true music therapy PhD program. A music therapist will typically practice in a manner that incorporates music therapy techniques with broader clinical practices such as assessment, diagnosis, psychotherapy, rehabilitation, and other practices depending on population. Music therapy services rendered within the context of a social service, educational, or health care agency are reimbursable by insurance and sources of funding for individuals with certain needs, under the title of Activity Therapy. Music therapy services have been identified as reimbursable under Medicaid, Medicare, private insurance plans and other services such as state departments and government programs.

A music therapist may also hold the designation of CMT, ACMT, or RMT—initials which were previously conferred by the now-defunct AAMT and NAMT. More current music therapists earn the credential, MT-BC, Music Therapist-Board Certified, granted by The Certification Board for Music Therapists (CBMT) by passing the national board certification examination. A degree in music therapy requires proficiency in guitar, piano, voice, music theory, music history, reading music, improvisation, as well as varying levels of skill in assessment, documentation, and other counseling and health care skills depending on the focus of the particular university's program.

To become board certified, a music therapist must complete a music therapy degree from an accredited AMTA program at a college or university, successfully complete a music therapy internship, and pass the Board Certification Examination in Music Therapy. To maintain the credential, either 100 units of continuing education must be completed every five years, or the board exam must be retaken near the end of the five year cycle. The units claimed for credit fall under the purview of The Certification Board for Music Therapists to assure continued competence in music therapy.

United Kingdom

Live music was used in hospitals after both of the World Wars, as part of the regime for some recovering soldiers. Clinical music therapy in Britain as it is understood today was pioneered in the 60s and 70s by French cellist Juliette Alvin, whose influence on the current generation of British music therapy lecturers remains strong. Mary Priestley, one of Juliette Alvin's students, came to discover/create "analytical music therapy". Analytical music therapy is a form of music therapy which together with the Nordoff-Robbins School of Music Therapy, form the two central forms of music therapy used today. Mary Priestley's books Music Therapy in Action, first published by Constable and company ©1975 (ISBN 0-09-459900-9) and Essays on Analytical Music Therapy, Barcelona Publishers ©1994 (ISBN 0-9624080-2-6) form part of the core course work for students of analytical music therapy all over the world.

The Nordoff-Robbins approach to music therapy developed from the work of Paul Nordoff and Clive Robbins in the 1950/60s. It is grounded in the belief that everyone can respond to music, no matter how ill or disabled. The unique qualities of music as therapy can enhance communication, support change, and enable people to live more resourcefully and creatively. Nordoff-Robbins now run music therapy sessions throughout the UK, US, South Africa, Australia and Germany. Its headquarters are in London where it also provides training and further education programs, including the only PhD course in music therapy available in the UK. Music therapists, many of whom work with an improvisatory model (see Clinical improvisation), are active particularly in the fields of child and adult learning disability, but also in psychiatry and forensic psychiatry, geriatrics, palliative care and other areas.

Practitioners are registered with the Health Professions Council[15] and from 2007 new registrants must normally hold a master's degree in music therapy. There are masters level programs in music therapy in Bristol, Cambridge, Cardiff, Edinburgh and London, and there are therapists throughout the UK. The professional body in the UK is the Association of Professional Music Therapists[16] while the British Society for Music Therapy[17] is a charity providing information about music therapy.

In 2002, the World Congress of Music Therapy was held in Oxford, on the theme of Dialogue and Debate.[18] In November 2006, Dr. Michael J. Crawford[19] and his colleagues again found that music therapy helped the outcomes of schizophrenic patients.[20][21] In 2009, he and his team were researching the usefulness of improvisational music in helping patients with agitation and also those with dementia.

India

Indian classical 'Ragas' have been acclaimed by Vedic science to have healing effects. Music has frequently been used as a therapeutic agent from the ancient times. In India, music is a kind of yoga system through the medium of sonorous sound, which acts upon the human organism and awakens and develops their proper functions to the extent of self-realization, which is the ultimate goal of Hindu Philosophy and religion. Melody is the keynote of Indian Music. The 'Raga' is the basis of melody. Various 'Ragas' have been found to be very effective in curing many diseases related to the Central Nervous System. Before using music as Therapy, it must be ascertained which type of music is to be used. The concept of Music Therapy is dependent on correct intonation and right use of the basic elements of music. Such as notes [swara] rhythm, volume, beats, and piece of melody.

There are countless 'Ragas' of course with countless characteristic peculiarities of their own. That is why we cannot establish a particular Raga for a particular disease. Different types of Ragas are applied in each different case. When the term Music Therapy is used, we think world-wide system of therapy. Literature of Vocal part of Indian Classical Music is not sufficient in that case. Classical music with its unique swara/note structure ensures calm and cozy mind by exposure and subdues the emotion provoking situations. Music plays an effective role in subduing the so-called emotional imbalance. The Music Therapy Day is celebrated on 13 May of each year in India.

As stroke therapy

Music has been shown to affect portions of the brain. Part of this therapy is the ability of music to affect emotions and social interactions. Research by Nayak et al. showed that music therapy is associated with a decrease in depression, improved mood, and a reduction in state anxiety.[22] Both descriptive and experimental studies have documented effects of music on quality of life, involvement with the environment, expression of feelings, awareness and responsiveness, positive associations, and socialization.[23] Additionally, Nayak et al. found that music therapy had a positive effect on social and behavioral outcomes and showed some encouraging trends with respect to mood.[22]

More recent research suggests that music can increase patient's motivation and positive emotions.[22][24][25] Current research also suggests that when music therapy is used in conjunction with traditional therapy it improves success rates significantly.[26][27][28] Therefore, it is hypothesized that music therapy helps stroke victims recover faster and with more success by increasing the patient's positive emotions and motivation, allowing them to be more successful and driven to participate in traditional therapies.

Research has shown the ability of music therapy to increase positive social interactions, positive emotions, and motivation in stroke patients. Wheeler et al. found that group music therapy sessions increased the ease at which stroke patients responded to social interaction and increased positive attitude reports from patient families, while individual sessions helped to motivate patients for treatment.[25] Another study examined the effect of music therapy on mood of stroke patients and found similar results that showed decreased anxiety, fatigue, and hostile mood states.[24] Additionally, Nayak et al. found improved social interaction (more actively involved and cooperative) when music therapy was used in stroke recovery programs.[22]

Recent studies have examined the effect of music therapy on stroke patients, when combined with traditional therapy. One study found the incorporation of music with therapeutic upper extremity exercises gave patients more positive emotional effects than exercise alone.[26] In another study, Nayak et al. found that rehabilitation staff rated participants in the music therapy group were more actively involved and cooperative in therapy than those in the control group.[22] Their findings gave preliminary support to the efficacy of music therapy as a complementary therapy for social functioning and participation in rehabilitation with a trend toward improvement in mood during acute rehabilitation.

Although positive changes have been associated with music therapy, some considerations must be taken into account. While scientists have determined that a variety of physiological and psychological changes occur when listening to music, broad conclusions cannot yet be made concerning the relationship and the direction of the relationship between music and emotion.[29] Additionally, there may be mediating factors which affect the success of music therapy. For example, Nayak et al. found the more impaired an individual's social behavior was at the outset of treatment, the more likely he or she was to benefit from music therapy.[22] Additionally, they noted the effectiveness of music therapy may be moderated by the time frame of the treatment. It is possible that music therapy has a more pronounced effect on mood the closer to injury it is applied.

Current research shows that when music therapy is used in conjunction with traditional therapy, it improves rates of recovery and emotional and social deficits resulting from stroke.[22][26][27][28][30][31] A study by Jeong & Kim examined the impact of music therapy when combined with traditional stroke therapy in a community-based rehabilitation program.[30] Thirty-three stroke survivors were randomized into one of two groups: the experimental group, which combined rhythmic music and specialized rehabilitation movement for eight weeks; and a control group that sought and received traditional therapy. The results of this study showed that participants in the experimental group gained not only more flexibility and wider range of motion, but an increased frequency and quality of social interactions and positive mood.[30]

Music has proven useful in the recovery of motor skills. Rhythmical auditory stimulation in a musical context in combination with traditional gait therapy improved the ability of stroke patients to walk.[27] The study consisted of two treatment conditions, one which received traditional gait therapy and another which received the gait therapy in combination with the rhythmical auditory stimulation. During the rhythmical auditory stimulation, stimulation was played back measure by measure, and was initiated by the patient's heel-strikes. Each condition received fifteen sessions of therapy. The results revealed that the rhythmical auditory stimulation group showed more improvement in stride length, symmetry deviation, walking speed and rollover path length (all indicators for improved walking gait) than the group that received traditional therapy alone.[27]

Schneider et al. also studied the effects of combining music therapy with standard motor rehabilitation methods.[28] In this experiment, researchers recruited stroke patients without prior musical experience and trained half of them in an intensive step by step training program that occurred fifteen times over three weeks, in addition to traditional treatment. These participants were trained to use both fine and gross motor movements by learning how to use the piano and drums. The other half of the patients received only traditional treatment over the course of the three weeks. Three-dimensional movement analysis and clinical motor tests showed participants who received the additional music therapy had significantly better speed, precision, and smoothness of movements as compared to the control subjects. Participants who received music therapy also showed a significant improvement in every-day motor activities as compared to the control group.[28] Wilson, Parsons, & Reutens looked at the effect of melodic intonation therapy (MIT) on speech production in a male singer with severe Broca's aphasia.[31] In this study, thirty novel phrases were taught in three conditions: unrehearsed, rehearsed verbal production (repetition), or rehearsed verbal production with melody (MIT). Results showed that phrases taught in the MIT condition had superior production, and that compared to rehearsal, effects of MIT lasted longer.

Another study examined the incorporation of music with therapeutic upper extremity exercises on pain perception in stroke victims.[26] Over the course of eight weeks, stroke victims participated in upper extremity exercises (of the hand, wrist, and shoulder joints) in conjunction with one of the three conditions: song, karaoke accompaniment, and no music. Patients participated in each condition once, according to a randomized order, and rated their perceived pain immediately after the session. Results showed that although there was no significant difference in pain rating across the conditions, video observations revealed more positive affect and verbal responses while performing upper extremity exercises with both music and karaoke accompaniment.[26] Nayak et al.[22] examined the combination of music therapy with traditional stroke rehabilitation and also found that the addition of music therapy improved mood and social interaction. Participants who had suffered traumatic brain injury or stroke were placed in one of two conditions: standard rehabilitation or standard rehabilitation along with music therapy. Participants received three treatments per week for up to ten treatments. Therapists found that participants who received music therapy in conjunction with traditional methods had improved social interaction and mood.

In heart disease

According to a 2009 Cochrane review of 23 clinical trials, it was found that some music may reduce heart rate, respiratory rate, and blood pressure in patients with coronary heart disease.[32] Benefits included a decrease in blood pressure, heart rate, and levels of anxiety in heart patients. However, the effect was not consistent across studies, according to Joke Bradt, PhD, and Cheryl Dileo, PhD, both of Temple University in Philadelphia. Music did not appear to have much effect on patients' psychological distress. "The quality of the evidence is not strong and the clinical significance unclear", the reviewers cautioned. In 11 studies patients were having cardiac surgery and procedures, in nine they were MI patients, and in three cardiac rehabilitation patients. The 1,461 participants were largely white (average 85%) and male (67%). In most studies, patients listened to one 30-minute music session. Only two used a trained music therapist instead of prerecorded music.

In epilepsy

Research suggests that listening to Mozart's piano sonata K448 can reduce the number of seizures in people with epilepsy.[33] This has been called the "Mozart effect." However, in recent times, the validity of the "Mozart Effect" and the studies undergone to reach this theory have been doubted, due to reasons such as the limitations in the original study and the difficulty in proving the effect of Mozart's music in subsequent studies.

Avant-music therapy

Music therapist, music researcher, and experimental composer Enrico Curreri clinically explored theories and concepts developed by the American composer John Cage. For example, in various music therapy sessions with a patient diagnosed with depression and anxiety disorder, Curreri performed Cage's seminal composition of silence 4′33″ and utilized aleatoric/chance procedures.[34] In addition, Curreri has been clinically investigating music perception by using experimental music/sound/noise music, free improvisation and microtonal music with adult patients diagnosed with mental illness.

Notable practitioners and authors

See also

References

  1. Amber Haque (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", Journal of Religion and Health 43 (4): 357-377 [363].
  2. cf. The Anatomy of Melancholy, Robert Burton, subsection 3, on and after line 3480, "Music a Remedy":
    But to leave all declamatory speeches in praise [3481]of divine music, I will confine myself to my proper subject: besides that excellent power it hath to expel many other diseases, it is a sovereign remedy against [3482] despair and melancholy, and will drive away the devil himself. Canus, a Rhodian fiddler, in [3483] Philostratus, when Apollonius was inquisitive to know what he could do with his pipe, told him, "That he would make a melancholy man merry, and him that was merry much merrier than before, a lover more enamoured, a religious man more devout." Ismenias the Theban, [3484] Chiron the centaur, is said to have cured this and many other diseases by music alone: as now they do those, saith [3485] Bodine, that are troubled with St. Vitus's Bedlam dance. [1]
    </span>

    </li>

  3. "Humanities are the Hormones: A Tarantella Comes to Newfoundland. What should we do about it?" by Dr. John Crellin, MUNMED, newsletter of the Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1996.
  4. Aung, Steven K.H., Lee, Mathew H.M., "Music, Sounds, Medicine, and Meditation: An Integrative Approach to the Healing Arts", Alternative & Complementary Therapies, Oct 2004, Vol. 10, No. 5: 266-270. [2]
  5. Davis, Gfeller, Thaut (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy Theory and Practice-Third Edition: The Music Therapy Treatment Process. Silver Spring, Maryland. pg. 460-468
  6. Davis, Gfeller, Thaut (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy Theory and Practice-Third Edition: The Music Therapy Treatment Process. Silver Spring, Maryland. pg. 469-473.
  7. Davis, Gfeller, Thaut (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy Theory and Practice-Third Edition: The Music Therapy Treatment Process. Silver Spring, Maryland. pg. 475.
  8. Davis, Gfeller, Thaut, (2008). An Introduction to Music Therapy Theory and Practice-Third Edition: The Music Therapy Treatment Process. Silver Spring, Maryland. pg. 475.
  9. Bunt, Leslie, and Sarah Hoskyns. Music Therapy: Seating the Scene (Hove and New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2002): Template:Page needed.
  10. Nordoff, Paul, and Glive Robbins. Music Therapy in Special Education: Group Instrumental Activities for Physically Disabled Children (New York: The John Day Company, 1971): Template:Page needed.
  11. Bunt, Leslie, and Sarah Hoskyns, Music Therapy: Practicalities and Basic Principles of Music Therapy (Hove and New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2002):Template:Page needed.
  12. Bunt, Leslie, and Sarah Hoskyns. Music Therapy: Seating the Scene (Hove and New York: Brunner-Routledge, 2002.): Template:Page needed.
  13. Nordoff, Paul, and Glive Robbins, Music Therapy in Special Education: Group Instrumental Activities for Physically Disabled Children (New York: The John Day Company, 1971): Template:Page needed.
  14. This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession, Daniel J. Levitin. New York: Dutton, 2006..
  15. http://www.hpc-uk.org
  16. http://www.apmt.org
  17. http://www.bsmt.org
  18. "Proceedings from the WFMT World Conference in Oxford, UK, 23-28 July 2002"
  19. Dr. Michael J. Crawford page at Imperial College London, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Psychological Medicine.
  20. Crawford, Mike J.; Talwar, Nakul, et. al. (November 2006). "Music therapy for in-patients with schizophrenia: Exploratory randomised controlled trial". British Journal of Psychiatry (2006) 189: 405–409. doi:10.1192/bjp.bp.105.015073. PMID 17077429. http://bjp.rcpsych.org/cgi/content/abstract/189/5/405. "Music therapy may provide a means of improving mental health among people with schizophrenia, but its effects in acute psychoses have not been explored". 
  21. "Music therapy may improve schizophrenia symptoms", Faculty of Medicine News, Imperial College, London.
  22. 22.0 22.1 22.2 22.3 22.4 22.5 22.6 22.7 Nayak, S et. al. (2000). Effect of music therapy on mood and social interaction among individuals with acute traumatic brain injury and stroke. Rehabilitation Psychology 45(3) 274-283.
  23. Hanser SB, Thompson LW (November 1994). "Effects of a music therapy strategy on depressed older adults". J Gerontol 49 (6): P265–9. PMID 7963281. 
  24. 24.0 24.1 Magee, W.L. & Davidson, J.W. (2002). The effect of music therapy on mood states in neurological patients: A pilot study. Journal of Music Therapy 39(1) 20-29.
  25. 25.0 25.1 Wheeler, B.L. et. al. (2003). Effects of Number of Sessions and Group or Individual Music Therapy on the Mood and Behavior of People Who Have Had Strokes or Traumatic Brain Injuries. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy. 12(2) 139-151.
  26. 26.0 26.1 26.2 26.3 26.4 Kim, S.J. (2005). The Effects of Music on Pain Perception of Stroke Patients During Upper Extremity Joint Exercises. Journal of Music Therapy. 42(1) 81-92.
  27. 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 Schauer M, Mauritz KH (November 2003). "Musical motor feedback (MMF) in walking hemiparetic stroke patients: randomized trials of gait improvement". Clin Rehabil 17 (7): 713–22. doi:10.1191/0269215503cr668oa. PMID 14606736. 
  28. 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Schneider S, Schönle PW, Altenmüller E, Münte TF (October 2007). "Using musical instruments to improve motor skill recovery following a stroke". J. Neurol. 254 (10): 1339–46. doi:10.1007/s00415-006-0523-2. PMID 17260171. 
  29. Vink, A. (2001). Music and emotion: Living apart together: A relationship between music psychology and music therapy. Nordic Journal of Music Therapy. 10(2) 144-158.
  30. 30.0 30.1 30.2 Jeong S, Kim MT (August 2007). "Effects of a theory-driven music and movement program for stroke survivors in a community setting". Appl Nurs Res 20 (3): 125–31. doi:10.1016/j.apnr.2007.04.005. PMID 17693215. 
  31. 31.0 31.1 Wilson, S.; Parsons, K.; & Reutens, D. (2006). Preserved Singing in Aphasia: A Case Study of the Efficacy of melodic intonation therapy. Music Perception. 42(1) 23-36.
  32. http://www.mrw.interscience.wiley.com/cochrane/clsysrev/articles/CD006577/frame.html
  33. Hughes, J., Daaboul Y., Fino, J., Shaw, G. (1998). The Mozart effect on epileptiform activity. Clin Electroencephalogr,29 (3), 109-19. Retrieved December 3, 2007, from Pubmed Database.
  34. Curreri, Enrico. 2008. W: A Case Study in John-Cage-Centered Music Therapy. MA Thesis, New York University.
  35. </ol>

Further reading

External links

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