|
|
| (One intermediate revision by one other user not shown) |
| Line 1: |
Line 1: |
Deprecated: The each() function is deprecated. This message will be suppressed on further calls in /home1/sloanean/public_html/psychotherapedia/includes/diff/DairikiDiff.php on line 434
| − | '''Behaviorism''' (or '''behaviourism'''), also called the '''learning perspective''' (where any physical action is a behavior), is a [[philosophy of psychology]] based on the proposition that all things that organisms do—including acting, thinking and feeling—can and should be regarded as [[behavior]]s.<ref name=Skinner1984>{{cite journal |author=Skinner, B.F. |date=16 April 1984 |title=The operational analysis of psychological terms |journal=Behavioral and brain sciences ''(Print)'' |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=547–581 |url=http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=9212556 |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> The behaviorist school of thought maintains that behaviors as such can be described [[scientific method|scientifically]] without recourse either to internal [[physiological]] events or to [[hypothetical construct]]s such as the [[mind]].<ref>{{cite book |author=Baum, William M. |title=Understanding behaviorism: science, behavior, and culture |publisher=HarperCollins College Publishers |location=New York, NY |year=1994 |isbn= 0-06-500286-5}}</ref> Behaviorism comprises the position that all theories should have [[observational]] [[correlate]]s but that there are no philosophical differences between publicly observable processes (such as actions) and privately observable processes (such as thinking and feeling).<ref name=Fraley>{{cite journal |last=Fraley |first=LF |year=2001 |title=Strategic interdisciplinary relations between a natural science community and a psychology community |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=209–324 |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=pdf |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref>
| + | Hello my friend heres my new gig easy as it looks Ill send u a total of 5350++ backlinks to your website in 2 tiers. This gig its for 1 website and up to 5 keywords. First tier to your main website 350 page rank 1-5 and the the second tier of 5000 profile backlinks pointing to your first tier.Ill send u a report in a txt file in less than 48 hours.Any question just send me a private message |
| − | | + | |
| − | From early [[psychology]] [[Timeline of psychology#Nineteenth century|in the 19th century]], the behaviorist school of thought ran concurrently and shared commonalities with the [[psychoanalytic]] and [[Gestalt psychology|Gestalt]] movements in psychology into [[Timeline of psychology#Twentieth century|the 20th century]]; but also differed from the [[mental philosophy]] of the Gestalt psychologists in critical ways.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} Its main influences were [[Ivan Pavlov]], who investigated [[classical conditioning]] although he did not necessarily agree with Behaviorism or Behaviorists, [[Edward Lee Thorndike]], [[John B. Watson]] who rejected [[introspection|introspective methods]] and sought to restrict psychology to [[experimental psychology|experimental methods]], and [[B.F. Skinner]] who conducted research on [[operant conditioning]].<ref name=Fraley/>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | In the second half of the 20th century, behaviorism was largely eclipsed as a result of the [[cognitive revolution]].<ref>Friesen, N. (2005). Mind and Machine: Ethical and Epistemological Implications for Research. Thompson Rivers University, B.C., Canada.</ref><ref>Waldrop, M.M. (2002). The Dream Machine: JCR Licklider and the revolution that made computing personal. New York: Penguin Books. (pp. 139–140).</ref> While behaviorism and cognitive schools of psychological thought may not agree theoretically, they have complemented each other in practical therapeutic applications, such as in [[cognitive–behavioral therapy]] that has demonstrable utility in treating certain pathologies, such as simple phobias, PTSD, and addiction. In addition, behaviorism sought to create a comprehensive model of the stream of behavior from the birth of the human to his death (see [[Behavior analysis of child development]]).
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==Versions==
| + | |
| − | There is no classification generally agreed upon, but some titles given to the various branches of behaviorism include:
| + | |
| − | * [[John B. Watson#Behaviorism|Methodological]]: The behaviorism of [[John B. Watson|Watson]]; the objective study of behavior; no mental life, no internal states; thought is [[covert]] speech.
| + | |
| − | * [[Radical behaviorism|Radical]]: [[B.F. Skinner|Skinner's]] behaviorism; is considered radical since it expands behavioral principles to processes within the organism; in contrast to methodological behaviorism; not mechanistic or reductionistic; hypothetical (mentalistic) internal states are not considered causes of behavior, phenomena must be observable at least to the individual experiencing them. [[Willard Van Orman Quine]] used many of radical behaviorism's ideas in his study of knowing and language.
| + | |
| − | * Teleological: Post-Skinnerian, purposive, close to [[microeconomics]]. Focuses on objective observation as opposed to cognitive processes.
| + | |
| − | * Theoretical: Post-Skinnerian, accepts observable internal states ("within the skin" once meant "unobservable", but with modern technology we are not so constrained); dynamic, but [[eclecticism|eclectic]] in choice of theoretical structures, emphasizes [[parsimony]].
| + | |
| − | * Biological: Post-Skinnerian, centered on perceptual and motor modules of behavior, theory of behavior systems.
| + | |
| − | * [[Psychological behaviorism]]: Arthur W. Staats' unifying approach to behaviorism and psychology. He merges psychological concepts like "personality" within a behavioral model like BBR [[Basic Behavioral Repertoires]].
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | Two subtypes are:
| + | |
| − | * [[Clark L. Hull|Hullian]] and post-Hullian: theoretical, group data, not dynamic, physiological;
| + | |
| − | * Purposive: [[Edward C. Tolman|Tolman]]'s behavioristic anticipation of cognitive psychology
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ===Definition===
| + | |
| − | B.F. Skinner was influential in defining radical behaviorism, a philosophy codifying the basis of his school of research (named the Experimental Analysis of Behavior, or EAB.) While EAB differs from other approaches to behavioral research on numerous methodological and theoretical points, radical behaviorism departs from methodological behaviorism most notably in accepting feelings, states of mind and introspection as existent and scientifically treatable. This is done by identifying them as something non-[[dualistic]], and here Skinner takes a divide-and-conquer approach, with some instances being identified with bodily conditions or behavior, and others getting a more extended "analysis" in terms of behavior. However, radical behaviorism stops short of identifying feelings as causes of behavior.<ref name="Skinner1984"/> Among other points of difference were a rejection of the reflex as a model of all behavior and a defense of a science of behavior complementary to but independent of physiology. Radical behaviorism has considerable overlap with other western philosophical positions such as American pragmatism.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Moxley |first=RA |year=2004 |title=Pragmatic selectionism: The philosophy of behavior analysis |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=108–125 |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=pdf |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ===Experimental and conceptual innovations===
| + | |
| − | This essentially philosophical position gained strength from the success of Skinner's early experimental work with rats and pigeons, summarized in his books ''The Behavior of Organisms''<ref>{{cite book |last= Skinner |first=B.F. |authorlink=B.F. Skinner |title=[[The Behavior of Organisms]] |publisher=Copley Pub Group |year=1991 |page=473 |isbn=0-87411-487-X}}</ref> and ''Schedules of Reinforcement''.<ref>{{cite book |author=Cheney, Carl D.; Ferster, Charles B. |title=Schedules of Reinforcement (B.F. Skinner Reprint Series) |publisher=Copley Publishing Group |location=Acton, MA |year=1997 |page=758 |isbn=0-87411-828-X}}</ref> Of particular importance was his concept of the operant response, of which the canonical example was the rat's lever-press. In contrast with the idea of a physiological or reflex response, an operant is a class of structurally distinct but functionally equivalent responses. For example, while a rat might press a lever with its left paw or its right paw or its tail, all of these responses operate on the world in the same way and have a common consequence. Operants are often thought of as species of responses, where the individuals differ but the class coheres in its function-shared consequences with operants and reproductive success with species. This is a clear distinction between Skinner's theory and [[S–R theory]].
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | Skinner's empirical work expanded on earlier research on [[trial-and-error]] learning by researchers such as Thorndike and Guthrie with both conceptual reformulations—Thorndike's notion of a stimulus–response "association" or "connection" was abandoned; and methodological ones—the use of the "free operant", so called because the animal was now permitted to respond at its own rate rather than in a series of trials determined by the experimenter procedures. With this method, Skinner carried out substantial experimental work on the effects of different schedules and rates of reinforcement on the rates of operant responses made by rats and pigeons. He achieved remarkable success in training animals to perform unexpected responses, and to emit large numbers of responses, and to demonstrate many empirical regularities at the purely behavioral level. This lent some credibility to his conceptual analysis. It is largely his conceptual analysis that made his work much more rigorous than his peers, a point which can be seen clearly in his seminal work ''Are Theories of Learning Necessary?'' in which he criticizes what he viewed to be theoretical weaknesses then common in the study of psychology. An important descendant of the experimental analysis of behavior is the [[Society for Quantitative Analysis of Behavior]].<ref>{{cite journal |last=Commons |first=ML |year=2001 |title=A short history of the Society for the Quantitative Analysis of Behavior |journal=Behavior Analyst Today |volume=2 |issue=3 |pages=275–279 |url=http://www.baojournal.com |format=pdf |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ===Relation to language===
| + | |
| − | As Skinner turned from experimental work to concentrate on the philosophical underpinnings of a science of behavior, his attention turned to human language with ''[[Verbal Behavior (book)|Verbal Behavior]]''<ref>{{cite book |first=Burrhus Frederick |last=Skinner |title=Verbal Behavior |authorlink=B.F. Skinner |location=Acton, Massachusetts |publisher=Copley Publishing Group |year=1957 |isbn= 1-58390-021-7}}</ref> and other language-related publications;<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Skinner |first=B.F. |authorlink=B.F. Skinner |year=1969 |title=An operant analysis of problem-solving |pages=133–157}}; chapter in {{cite book |author=Skinner, B.F. |year=1969 |title=Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |isbn=0-13-171728-6 |page=283}}</ref> ''Verbal Behavior'' laid out a vocabulary and theory for functional analysis of verbal behavior, and was strongly criticized in a review by [[Noam Chomsky]].<ref>{{cite journal |title=A Review of B. F. Skinner's Verbal Behavior |journal=Language |issue=35 |number=1 |url=http://www.chomsky.info/articles/1967----.htm |year=1959 |pages=26–58 |author=Chomsky, Noam |doi=10.2307/411334 |volume=35 |jstor=411334|author2=Skinner, B.F.}}</ref> Skinner did not respond in detail but claimed that Chomsky failed to understand his ideas,<ref>{{cite journal |author=Skinner, B.F. |title=I Have Been Misunderstood. |journal=Center Magazine |year=1972 |issue= March–April |page=63}}</ref> and the disagreements between the two and the theories involved have been further discussed.<ref name=MacCorquodale1970>{{cite journal |author=MacCorquodale, K. |year=1970 |title=On Chomsky's Review of Skinner's VERBAL BEHAVIOR |journal=Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=83–99 |url=https://www.behavior.org/computer-modeling/maccorquodale/maccorquodale2.cfm |accessdate=2008-01-10 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1970.13-83}}</ref><ref name="pmid2103585">{{cite journal |author=Stemmer N |title=Skinner's verbal behavior, Chomsky's review, and mentalism |journal=J Exp Anal Behav |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=307–15 |year=1990 |pmid=2103585 |doi=10.1901/jeab.1990.54-307 |pmc=1323000}}</ref> In addition; [[innate theory]] is opposed to [[behaviorist theory]] which claims that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by means of conditioning. According to some, this process that the behaviorists define is a very slow and gentle process to explain a phenomenon complicated as language learning. What was important for a behaviorist's analysis of human behavior was not [[language acquisition]] so much as the interaction between language and overt behavior. In an essay republished in his 1969 book ''Contingencies of Reinforcement'',<ref>{{cite book |author=Skinner, B.F. |year=1969 |title=Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis |publisher=Appleton-Century-Crofts |isbn=0-13-171728-6 |page=283}}</ref> Skinner took the view that humans could construct linguistic stimuli that would then acquire control over their behavior in the same way that external stimuli could. The possibility of such "instructional control" over behavior meant that contingencies of reinforcement would not always produce the same effects on human behavior as they reliably do in other animals. The focus of a radical behaviorist analysis of human behavior therefore shifted to an attempt to understand the interaction between instructional control and contingency control, and also to understand the behavioral processes that determine what instructions are constructed and what control they acquire over behavior. Recently a new, promising line of behavioral research on language was started under the name of [[Relational Frame Theory]].
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==Molar versus molecular behaviorism==
| + | |
| − | Skinner's view of behavior is most often characterized as a "molecular" view of behavior; that is, behavior can be decomposed into atomistic parts or molecules. This view is inconsistent with Skinner's complete description of behavior as delineated in other works, including his 1981 article "Selection by Consequences".<ref name=Skinner1981>{{Cite journal |date=31 July 1981 |author=Skinner, B.F |title=Selection by Consequences |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=213 |issue=4507 |pages=501–504 |doi=10.1126/science.7244649 |url=http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/Selection%20by%20Consequences.pdf |accessdate=14 August 2010 |pmid=7244649}}</ref> Skinner proposed that a complete account of behavior requires understanding of selection history at three levels: [[biology]] (the [[natural selection]] or [[phylogeny]] of the animal); behavior (the reinforcement history or ontogeny of the behavioral repertoire of the animal); and for some species, [[culture]] (the cultural practices of the social group to which the animal belongs). This whole organism then interacts with its environment. Molecular behaviorists use notions from [[melioration theory]], [[hyperbolic discounting|negative power function discounting]] or additive versions of negative power function discounting.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fantino E |title=Delay-reduction theory—the case for temporal context: comment on Grace and Savastano (2000) |journal=J Exp Psychol Gen |volume=129 |issue=4 |pages=444–6 |year=2000 |pmid=11142857 |doi=10.1037/0096-3445.129.4.444}}</ref>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | Molar behaviorists, such as [[Howard Rachlin]], [[Richard Herrnstein]], and William Baum, argue that behavior cannot be understood by focusing on events in the moment. That is, they argue that behavior is best understood as the ultimate product of an organism's history and that molecular behaviorists are committing a fallacy by inventing fictitious proximal causes for behavior. Molar behaviorists argue that standard molecular constructs, such as "associative strength", are better replaced by molar variables such as [[rate of reinforcement]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Baum, W.M. |year=2003 |title=The molar view of behavior and its usefulness in behavior analysis |journal=Behavior Analyst Today |volume=4 |pages=78–81 |url=http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=abstract&id=206927 |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Thus, a molar behaviorist would describe "loving someone" as a pattern of [[love|loving behavior]] over time; there is no isolated, proximal cause of loving behavior, only a history of behaviors (of which the current behavior might be an example) that can be summarized as "love".
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==Behaviorism in philosophy==
| + | |
| − | Behaviorism is a psychological movement that can be contrasted with [[philosophy of mind]]. The basic premise of ''radical behaviorism'' is that the study of behavior should be a [[natural science]], such as [[chemistry]] or [[physics]], without any reference to hypothetical inner states of organisms as causes for their behavior. A modern example of such analysis would be Fantino and colleagues' work on behavioral approaches to reasoning.<ref name=Fantino2003>{{cite journal |author=Fantino, E. |coauthors=Stolarz-Fantino, S.; Navarro, A. |year=2003 |title=Logical fallacies: A behavioral approach to reasoning |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=4 |pages=109–17 |url=http://www.doaj.org/doaj?func=abstract&id=207433 |accessdate=2008-01-10}}</ref> Other varieties, such as ''theoretical behaviorism'', permit internal states, but do not require them to be mental or have any relation to subjective experience. Behaviorism takes a functional view of behavior.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | There are points of view within [[analytic philosophy]] that have called themselves, or have been called by others, behaviorist. In ''logical behaviorism'' (as held, e.g., by [[Rudolf Carnap]] and [[Carl Hempel]]), the meaning of psychological statements are their verification conditions, which consist of performed overt behavior. [[W.V. Quine]] made use of a type of behaviorism, influenced by some of Skinner's ideas, in his own work on language. [[Gilbert Ryle]] defended a distinct strain of philosophical behaviorism, sketched in his book ''The Concept of Mind''. Ryle's central claim was that instances of dualism frequently represented "[[category mistake]]s", and hence that they were really misunderstandings of the use of ordinary language. [[Daniel Dennett]] likewise acknowledges himself to be a type of behaviorist.<ref name="Ref-1">{{cite web |url=http://ase.tufts.edu/cogstud/papers/msgisno.htm |title=The Message is: There is no Medium |last=Dennett |first=DC |authorlink=Daniel Dennett |accessdate=2008-01-10 |publisher=Tufts University}}</ref>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | It is sometimes argued that [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], defended a behaviorist position (e.g., the ''[[Philosophical Investigations#Wittgenstein's beetle|beetle in a box]]'' argument), but while there are important relations between his thought and behaviorism, the claim that he was a behaviorist is quite controversial. Mathematician [[Alan Turing]] is also sometimes considered a behaviorist,{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} but he himself did not make this identification.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==21st century behavior analysis==
| + | |
| − | As of 2007, modern-day behaviorism, known as "behavior analysis", is a thriving field. The [[Association for Behavior Analysis: International]] (ABAI) currently has 32 state and regional chapters within the United States. Approximately 30 additional chapters have also developed throughout Europe, Asia, South America, and Australia. In addition to 34 annual conferences held by ABAI in the United States and Canada, ABAI held the 5th annual International conference in Norway in 2009.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | The interests among behavior analysts today are wide ranging, as a review of the 30 Special Interest Groups (SIGs) within ABAI indicates. Such interests include everything from developmental disabilities and autism, to cultural psychology, clinical psychology, verbal behavior, [[Organizational Behavior Management]] (OBM; behavior analytic I/O psychology). OBM has developed a particularly strong following within behavior analysis, as evidenced by the formation of the OBM Network and the influential ''Journal of Organizational Behavior Management'' (JOBM; recently rated the 3rd highest impact journal in applied psychology by ISI JOBM rating).
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | Modern [[behavior analysis]] has also witnessed a massive resurgence in research and applications related to language and cognition, with the development of [[Relational Frame Theory]] (RFT; described as a "Post-Skinnerian account of language and cognition").<ref>Hayes, S.C., Barnes-Holmes, D., & Roche, B. (2001) Relational Frame Theory: A Post-Skinnerian account of human language and cognition. Kluwer Academic: New York.</ref> RFT also forms the empirical basis for the highly successful and data-driven [[Acceptance and Commitment Therapy]] (ACT). In fact, researchers and practitioners in RFT/ACT have become sufficiently prominent that they have formed their own specialized organization, known as the Association for Contextual Behavioral Science (ACBS).
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | Some of the current prominent behavior analytic journals include the ''Journal of [[Applied Behavior Analysis]]'' (JABA), the ''Journal of the Experimental Analysis of Behavior'' (JEAB) JEAB website, the ''Journal of Organizational Behavior Management'' (JOBM), ''Behavior and Social Issues'' (BSI), as well as the ''Psychological Record''. Currently, the U.S. has 14 ABAI accredited MA and PhD programs for comprehensive study in behavior analysis.
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==Behavior analysis and culture==
| + | |
| − | Cultural analysis has always been at the philosophical core of radical behaviorism from the early days (As seen in Skinner's ''[[Walden Two]]'', ''Science & Human Behavior'', ''Beyond Freedom & Dignity'', and ''About Behaviorism''.)
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | During the 1980s, behavior analysts, most notably Sigrid Glenn, had a productive interchange with cultural anthropologist Marvin Harris (the most notable proponent of "Cultural Materialism") regarding interdisciplinary work. Very recently, behavior analysts have produced a set of basic exploratory experiments in an effort toward this end.<ref>{{cite journal | last1 = Ward | first1 = Todd.A. | last2 = Eastman | first2 = Raymond | last3 = Ninness | first3 = Chris | year = 2009 | title = An Experimental Analysis of Cultural Materialism: The Effects of Various Modes of Production on Resource Sharing | url = http://www.uic.edu/htbin/cgiwrap/bin/ojs/index.php/bsi/article/view/1950/2185 | journal = Behavior and Social Issues | volume = 18 | issue = | pages = 1–23 }}</ref>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==List of notable behaviorists==
| + | |
| − | * [[Alan E. Kazdin]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Albert Bandura]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Edwin Ray Guthrie]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Richard J. Herrnstein]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Clark L. Hull]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Ivan Pavlov]]
| + | |
| − | * [[B.F. Skinner]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Edward Lee Thorndike]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Edward C. Tolman]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Murray Sidman]]
| + | |
| − | * [[John B. Watson]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Ole Ivar Lovaas]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Steven C. Hayes]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Donald Baer]]
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==See also==
| + | |
| − | * [[Animal training]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Applied behavior analysis]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Behavior modification]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Behavior therapy]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Behavioral change theories]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Professional practice of behavior analysis]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Behavior analysis of child development]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Classical conditioning]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Cognition]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Cognitive revolution]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Dog behaviorist]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Experimental analysis of behavior]]
| + | |
| − | * [[List of publications in psychology#Behaviorism|Important publications in behaviorism]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Models of abnormality]]
| + | |
| − | * [[Psychological behaviorism]]
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==References==
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | <references/>
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==Further reading==
| + | |
| − | * Baum, W.M. (2005) ''Understanding behaviorism: Behavior, Culture and Evolution''. Blackwell.
| + | |
| − | * Ferster, C.B., and Skinner, B.F. (1957). ''Schedules of reinforcement''. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
| + | |
| − | * Mills, John A., ''Control: A History of Behavioral Psychology'', Paperback Edition, New York University Press 2000.
| + | |
| − | * Lattal, K.A. and Chase, P.N. (2003) "Behavior Theory and Philosophy". Plenum.
| + | |
| − | * Plotnik, Rod. (2005) ''Introduction to Psychology''. Thomson-Wadsworth (ISBN 0-534-63407-9).
| + | |
| − | * Rachlin, H. (1991) ''Introduction to modern behaviorism.'' (3rd edition.) New York: Freeman.
| + | |
| − | * Skinner, B.F., ''Beyond Freedom & Dignity'', Hackett Publishing Co, Inc 2002.
| + | |
| − | * Skinner, B.F. (1938). ''The behavior of organisms''. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
| + | |
| − | * {{cite journal | last1 = Skinner | first1 = B.F. | year = 1945 | title = The operational analysis of psychological terms | url = | journal = Psychological Review | volume = 52 | issue = 270–277| pages = 290–294 }}
| + | |
| − | * Skinner, B.F. (1953). ''Science and Human Behavior'' (ISBN 0-02-929040-6) [http://www.bfskinner.org/f/Science_and_Human_Behavior.pdf Online version].
| + | |
| − | * Skinner, B.F. (1957). ''Verbal behavior''. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
| + | |
| − | * Skinner, B.F. (1969). ''Contingencies of reinforcement: a theoretical analysis''. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts.
| + | |
| − | * {{Cite journal |date=31 July 1981 |author=Skinner, B.F. |title=Selection by Consequences |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=213 |issue=4507 |pages=501–504 |doi=10.1126/science.7244649 |url= http://www.psychology.uiowa.edu/Classes/31174/Documents/Selection%20by%20Consequences.pdf |accessdate=14 August 2010 |pmid=7244649}}
| + | |
| − | * Staddon, J. (2001) ''The new behaviorism: Mind, mechanism and society.'' Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press. pp. xiii, 1–211.
| + | |
| − | * Watson, J.B. (1913). Psychology as the behaviorist views it. ''Psychological Review'', 20, 158–177. ([http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Watson/views.htm on-line]).
| + | |
| − | * Watson, J.B. (1919). ''Psychology from the Standpoint of a Behaviorist''.
| + | |
| − | * Watson, J.B. (1924). ''Behaviorism''.
| + | |
| − | * Zuriff, G.E. (1985). [http://www.questia.com/PM.qst?a=o&d=86092256 ''Behaviorism: A Conceptual Reconstruction''], Columbia University Press.
| + | |
| − | * LeClaire, J. and Rushin, J.P. (2010) ''Behavioral Analytics For Dummies.'' Wiley. (ISBN 978-0-470-58727-0).
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | ==External links==
| + | |
| − | * {{sep entry|behaviorism|Behaviorism|George Graham}}
| + | |
| − | * [http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1-30 ''Dictionary of the History of Ideas'':] Behaviorism
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.questia.com/library/psychology/other-types-of-psychology/behaviorism.jsp Books and Journal Articles On Behaviorism]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.biozentrum.uni-wuerzburg.de/genetics/behavior/learning/behaviorism.html Wuerzburg University: behaviourism]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.bfskinner.org B.F. Skinner Foundation]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.behavior.org Cambridge Center for Behavioral Studies]
| + | |
| − | * [http://psychclassics.yorku.ca/Skinner/Theories Skinner's Theories]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.apa.org/divisions/div25/ APA Behaviour Analysis]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.abainternational.org/ Association for Behavior Analysis]
| + | |
| − | * [http://homepage.uibk.ac.at/~c720126/humanethologie/ws/medicus/block1/inhalt.html Theory of Behavioral Anthropology (Documents No. 9 and 10 in English)]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.calaba.org California Association for Behavior Analysis]
| + | |
| − | * [http://www.contextualpsychology.org Association for Contextual Behavioral Science]
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | {{Psychology}}
| + | |
| − | {{philosophy of mind}}
| + | |
| − | | + | |
| − | [[Category:Behaviorism| ]]
| + | |
| − | [[Category:Psychological theories]]
| + | |
| − | [[Category:Theories of mind]]
| + | |
Hello my friend heres my new gig easy as it looks Ill send u a total of 5350++ backlinks to your website in 2 tiers. This gig its for 1 website and up to 5 keywords. First tier to your main website 350 page rank 1-5 and the the second tier of 5000 profile backlinks pointing to your first tier.Ill send u a report in a txt file in less than 48 hours.Any question just send me a private message
